OLD TESTAMENT APOCRYPHAL BOOKS We shall now proceed to enumerate the apocryphal books; first the Apocrypha Proper, and next the rest of the Old and New Testament apocryphal literature.
I. The Apocrypha Proper, or the apocrypha of the Old Testa ment as used by English-speaking Protestants, consists of the following books: I. Esdras, II. Esdras, Tobit, Judith, Additions to Esther, Wisdom of Solomon, Ecclesiasticus, Baruch, Epistle of Jeremy, Additions to Daniel (Song of the Three Holy Children, History of Susannah, and Bel and the Dragon), Prayer of Ma nasses, I. Maccabees, II. Maccabees. Thus the Apocrypha Proper constitutes the surplusage of the Vulgate or Bible of the Roman Church over the Hebrew Old Testament. Since this surplusage is in turn derived from the Septuagint, from which the old Latin version was translated, it thus follows that the difference between the Protestant and the Roman Catholic Old Testament is, roughly speaking, traceable to the difference between the Palestinian and the Alexandrian canons of the Old Testament. But this is only true with certain reservations ; for the Latin Vulgate was revised by Jerome according to the Hebrew, and, where Hebrew originals were wanting, according to the Septuagint. Furthermore, the Vulgate rejects III. and IV. Maccabees and Psalm cli., which gen erally appear in the Septuagint, while the Septuagint and Luther's Bible reject IV. Ezra, which is found in the Vulgate and the Apocrypha Proper. Luther's Bible, moreover, rejects also III. Ezra. It should further be observed that the Vulgate adds the Prayer of Manasses and III. and IV. Ezra after the New Testa ment as apocryphal.
It is hardly possible to form any classification which is not open to some objection. In any case the classification must be to some extent provisional, since scholars are still divided as to the original language, date and place of composition of some of the books which must come under our classification. We may, how ever, discriminate (i.) the Palestinian and (ii.) the Hellenistic literature of the Old Testament, though even this distinction is open to serious objections. The former literature was generally written in Hebrew or Aramaic, and seldom in Greek; the latter naturally in Greek. Next, within these literatures we shall dis tinguish three or four classes according to the nature of the subject with which they deal. Thus the books of which we have to treat will be classed as (a) Historical, (b) Legendary (Hag gadic), (c) Apocalyptic, (d) Didactic or Sapiential.
The Apocrypha Proper then would be classified as follows : i. Palestinian Jewish Literature : Historical: I (3) Ezra, I. Macc. Legendary: Baruch, Judith.
Apocalyptic: 2 (4) Ezra. Sapiential: Ecclesiasticus.
ii. Hellenistic Jewish Literature : Historical and Legendary: Additions to Daniel, Additions to Esther, Ep. of Jeremy, II. Macc., Prayer of Manasses. Sapiential: Wisdom.
Since all these books are dealt with in separate articles, they call for no further notice here.
2 (a). Other Old Testament Apocryphal Literature:— (a) Historical: Hist. of Johannes Hyrcanus. (b) Legendary: Bk. of Jubilees. Paralipomena Jeremiae, or the Rest of the Words of Baruch. Martyrdom of Isaiah. Pseudo-Philos Liber Antiquitatum. Bks. of Adam. James and Jambres. Joseph and Asenath. (c) Apocalyptic (see APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE). (d) Sapiential: Pirke Aboth.
(a) Historical.—The History of Johannes Hyrcanus is men tioned in I. Macc. xvi. 23-24, but no trace has been discovered of its existence elsewhere. It must have early passed out of cir culation, as it was unknown to Josephus.
(b) Legendary.—The Book of Jubilees was written in Hebrew by a Pharisee between the year of the accession of Hyrcanus to the high-priesthood in 135 and his breach with the Pharisees some years before his death in 105 B.C. Jubilees was translated into Greek and from Greek into Ethiopic and Latin. It is preserved in its entirety only in Ethiopic. Jubilees is the most advanced pre-Christian representative of the midrashic tendency, which was already at work in the Old Testament i and 2 Chronicles. As the chronicler rewrote the history of Israel and Judah from the basis of the Priests' Code, so our author re-edited from the Pharisaic standpoint of his time the book of Genesis and the early chapters of Exodus. His object is to prove the everlasting validity of the law, which, though revealed in time, was superior to time. Writ ing in the palmiest days of the Maccabean dominion, he looked for the immediate advent of the Messianic kingdom. This king dom was to be ruled over by a Messiah sprung not from Judah but from Levi, that is, from the reigning Maccabean family. This kingdom was to be gradually realized on earth, the transformation of physical nature going hand in hand with the ethical transforma tion of man. (For a fuller account see JUBILEES, BOOK OF.) Paralipomena Jeremiae, or the Rest of the Words of Baruch.
(See BARUCH.) Martyrdom of Isaiah.—This Jewish work has been in part preserved in the Ascension of Isaiah. To it belong i. 1, 2a, ii. 1-8, Io; iii. 12 ; V. ic-14 of that book. It is of Jewish origin, and recounts the martyrdom of Isaiah at the hands of Manasseh.
(See ISAIAH, ASCENSION OF.) Pseudo-Philo's Liber Antiquitatum Biblicarum.—Though the Latin version of this book was thrice printed in the i6th century (in 1527, 1550 and 1J99), it was practically unknown to modern scholars till it was recognized by Conybeare and discussed by Cohn in the Jewish Quarterly Review, 1898, pp. It is an Haggadic revision of the biblical history from Adam to the death of Saul. Its chronology agrees frequently with the LXX. against that of the Massoretic text, though conversely in a few cases. The Latin is undoubtedly translated from the Greek. Greek words are frequently transliterated. While the LXX. is occasionally followed in its translation of Biblical passages, in others the Massoretic is followed against the LXX., and in one or two passages the text presupposes a text different from both. On many grounds Cohn and James infer a Hebrew original. The eschatology is similar to that taught in the similitudes of the Book of Enoch. In fact, Eth. En. li. 1 is reproduced in this connection. Prayers of the departed are said to be valueless. The book was written after A.D. 70; for, as Cohn has shown, the exact date of the fall of Herod's temple is predicted.
(d) Sapiential.—The Pirke Aboth, a collection of sayings of the Jewish Fathers, are preserved in the 9th Tractate of the Fourth Order of the Mishnah. They are attributed to some 6o Jewish teachers, belonging for the most part to the years A.D. 7o-17o, though a few of them are of a much earlier date. The book holds the same place in rabbinical literature as the Book of Proverbs in the Bible. The sayings are often admirable. Thus in iv. 1-4, "Who is wise ? He that learns from every man. . . . Who is mighty? He that subdues his nature. . . . Who is rich? He that is con tented with his lot. . . . Who is honoured? He that honours man kind." (See further PIRKE ABUTH. ) 2 (b). New Testament Apocryphal Literature:— (a) Gospels:—Uncanonical sayings of the Lord in Christian and Jewish writings. Gospel according to the Egyptians. Gospel according to the Hebrews. Protevangel of James. Gospel of Nicodemus. Gospel of Peter. Gospel of Thomas. Gospel of the Twelve. Gnostic gospels of Andrew, Apelles, Barnabas, Bartholomew, Basilides, Cerinthus and some seventeen others.
(b) Acts and Teachings of the Apostles:—Acts of Andrew and later forms of these Acts. Acts of John. Acts of Paul. Acts of Peter. Preaching of Peter. Acts of Thomas. Teaching of the Twelve Apostles. Apostolic constitutions.
(c) Epistles:—The Abgar Epistles. Epistle of Barnabas. Epistle of Clement. "Clement's" 2nd Epistle of the Cor inthians. "Clement's" Epistles on Virginity. Clement's Epistles to James. Epistles of Ignatius. Epistle of Poly carp. Pauline Epp. to the Laodiceans and Alexandrians. 3 Pauline Ep. to the Corinthians.
(d) Apocalypses: see under APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE.
(a) Gospels.—Uncanonical Sayings of the Lord in Christian and Jewish Sources.—Under the head of canonical sayings not found in the Gospels only one is found, i. e., that in Acts xx. 35. Of the rest the uncanonical sayings have been collected by Preu schen (Reste der ausserkanonischen Evangelien, 1901, pp. A different collection will be found in Hennecke, NTliche Apok. 9-11. The same subject is dealt with by Rescb (Agrapha; aus sercanonische 1906).
To this section belongs also the Fayum Gospel Fragment and the Logia published by Grenfell and Hunt. The former contains two sayings of Christ and one of Peter, such as we find in the canonical gospels, Matt. xxvi. 31-34, Mark xiv. 27-30. The pa pyrus, which is of the 3rd century, was discovered by Bickell among the Rainer collection, who characterized it (Z. f. kath. Theol., PP. 498-504) as a fragment of one of the primitive gospels mentioned in Luke i. 1. On the other hand, it has been contended that it is merely a fragment of an early patristic homily. (See Zahn, Gesch. Kanons, ii. 78o-790; Harnack, Texte and Un tersuchungen, v. 4; Preuschen, op. cit. p. 19.) The Logia (q.v.) is the name given to the sayings contained in a papyrus leaf by its discoverers, Grenfell and Hunt. They think the papyrus was probably written about A.D. 200. According to Harnack, it is an extract from the Gospel of the Egyptians. All the passages re ferring to Jesus in the Talmud are given by Laible, Jesus Christus im Talmud, with an appendix, "Die talmudischen Texte," by G. Dalman, 2nd ed. (19o1) . The first edition of this work was trans lated into English by A. W. Streane, Jesus Christ in the Talmud (1893). In Hennecke's NTliche Apok. Handbuch (pp. 47-71) there is a valuable study of this question by A. Meyer, entitled Jesus, Jesu Jiunger and das Evangelium im Talmud and ver wandten jiidisckien Schri f ten, to which also a good bibliography of the subject is prefixed.
Gospel According to the Egyptians.—This gospel circulated among various heretical circles; among the Encratites, Naassenes and the Sabellians. Only three or four fragments survive which show that it was a product of pantheistic Gnosticism. With this pantheistic Gnosticism is associated a severe asceticism. The dis tinctions of sex are one day to come to an end; the prohibition of marriage follows naturally on this view. Hence Christ is rep resented as coming to destroy the work of the female (Clem. Alex. Strom. iii. 9. 63) . Lipsius and Zahn assign it to the middle of the 2nd century. It may be earlier.
Protevangel of James.—This title was first given in the i6th century to a writing which is referred to as The Book of James by Origen. The narrative extends from the Conception of the Virgin to the Death of Zacharias. The author had at his disposal two distinct groups of legends about Mary. One of these groups is certainly of non-Jewish origin, as it conceives Mary as living in the temple somewhat after the manner of a vestal virgin or a priestess of Isis. The other group is more in accord with the orthodox gospels. The book appears to have been written in Egypt, and in the early years of the 2nd century. For, since Origen states that many appealed to it in support of the view that the brothers of Jesus were sons of Joseph by a former marriage, the book must have been current about A.D. 200. From Origen we may ascend to Clem. Alex. who (Strom. vi. 93) shows ac quaintance with one of the chief doctrines of the book—the per petual virginity of Mary. Finally, as Justin's statements as to the birth of Jesus in a cave and Mary's descent from David show in all probability his acquaintance with the book, it may with good grounds be assigned to the first decade of the 2nd century.
Gospel of Nicodemus.—This title is first met with in the 13th century. It is also called The Acts of Pilate. The work gives an account of the Passion (i.–xi.), the Resurrection (xii.–xvi.), and the Descensus ad In f eros (xvii.–xxvii.) . Chapters i.–xvi. are not earlier than the 4th century ; xvii.–xxvii. probably about a century later.
The name "Gospel according to the Hebrews" cannot have been original; for if it had been so named because of its general use among the Hebrews, the Hebrews themselves would not have used this designation. It may have been known simply as "the Gospel." The language was Western Aramaic, the mother tongue of Jesus and his apostles. Two forms of Western Aramaic sur vive: the Jerusalem form of the dialect, in the Aramaic portions of Daniel and Ezra ; and the Galilean, in isolated expressions in the Talmud (3rd century), and in a fragmentary 5th century translation of the Bible. The quotations from the Old Testament are made from the Massoretic text.
This gospel must have been translated at an early date into Greek, as Clement and Origen cite it as generally accessible, and Eusebius recounts that many reckoned it among the received books. The gospel is synoptic in character and is closely related to Matthew, though in the Resurrection accounts it has affinities with Luke. Like Mark, it seems to have had no history of the birth of Christ, and to have begun with the baptism. (For the literature see Hennecke, NTliche Apok. Handbuch, 21-23.) Gospel of Peter.—Bef ore 1892 we had some knowledge of this gospel. Thus Serapion, bishop of Antioch (A.D. 190-203) found it in use in the church of Rhossus in Cilicia, and condemned it as Docetic (Eusebius, H. E. vi. 12). Again, Origen (In Matt. tom. xvii. 1o) says that it represented the brethren of Christ as his half-brothers. In 1885 a long fragment was discovered at Akhmim, and published by Bouriant in 1892, and subsequently by Lods, Robinson, Harnack, Zahn, Schubert, Swete.
Other Gospels Mainly Gnostic and Almost All Lost.— Gospel of Andrew.—This is condemned in the Gelasian Decree, and is probably the gospel mentioned by Innocent (I. Ep. iii. 7) and Augustine (Contra advers. Leg. et Proph. i. 20).
Gospel of Apelles.—Mentioned by Jerome in his Prooem. ad Matt.
Gospel of Basilides.—Mentioned by Origen (Tract. 26 in Matt. xxxiii. 34, and in his Prooem in Luc.) ; by Jerome in his Prooem in Matt. (See Harnack i. 161; ii. 536-537; Zahn, Gesch. Kanons, i. Gospel of Cerinthus.—Mentioned by Epiphanius (Haer. li. 7) . Gospel of the Ebionites.—A fragmentary edition of the canon ical Matthew according to Epiphanius (Haer. xxx. 13), used by the Ebionites and called by them the Hebrew Gospel.
Gospel of Eve.—A quotation from this gospel is given by Epiphanius (Haer. xxvi. 2, 3) which shows that it was the ex pression of complete pantheism.
Wisdom of Jesus Christ.—This third work contained in the Coptic ms. referred to under Gospel of Mary gives cosmological disclosures and is presumably of Valentinian origin.
Apocryph of John.—This book, which is found in the Coptic ms. referred to under Gospel of Mary and contains cosmological disclosures of Christ, is said to have formed the source of Irenaeus' account of the Gnostics of Barbelus (i. 29-31) . Thus this work would have been written before 170.
Gospel of Judas Iscariot.—References to this gospel as in use among the Cainites are made by Irenaeus (i. 31. 1) ; Epiphanius (xxxviii. I. 3) .
Questions of Mary (Great and Little).—Epiphanius (Haer. xxvi. 8) gives some excerpts from this revolting work.
Gospel of Mary.—This gospel is found in a Coptic ms. of the 5th century ; it gives disclosures on the nature of matter and the progress of the Gnostic soul through the seven planets.
Gospel of Philip.—This gospel described the progress of a soul through the next world. It is of a strongly Encratite character and dates from the 2nd century.
Acts of Paul.—The author was, according to Tertullian (De Baptism. 17), a presbyter in Asia, who out of honour to Paul wrote the Acts, forging at the same time 3 Corinthians. Thus the work was composed before 190, and, since it most probably uses the martyrdom of Polycarp, after 155. The object of the writer is to embody in St. Paul the model idea of the popular Christianity of the 2nd century. His main emphasis is laid on chastity and the resurrection of the flesh. The tone of the work is Catholic and anti-Gnostic. For the bibliography of the subject see Hennecke, NT. Apok. 358-360.
Acts of Peter.—These acts were written not later than A.D. 200; the language (Greek) is modelled on that of the Acts of John. The author was probably a resident in Asia Minor.
Preaching of Peter.—This book (irirpov Kiipvyµa) gave the substance of a series of discourses spoken by one person in the name of the apostles. Clement of Alexandria quotes it several times as a genuine record of Peter's teaching. Heracleon had previously used it (see Origen, In Evang. Johann. t. xiii. 17) . It is spoken unfavourably of by Origen (De Prin. Praef. 8). It was probably in the hands of Justin and Aristides. Hence Zahn gives its date as 90-100 at latest ; Dobschutz, as 100-1 I o ; and Harnack, as 110-130. The extant fragments contain sayings of Jesus, and warnings against Judaism and Polytheism.
Acts of Thomas.—This is one of the earliest and most famous of the Gnostic Acts. It has been but slightly tampered with by orthodox hands. These Acts were used by the Encratites (Epi phanius, Haer. xlvii. 1), the Manichaeans (Augustine, Contra Faust. xxii. 79), the Apostolici (Epiphanius lxi. i) and Priscillian ists. The work is divided into 13 Acts, to which the Martyrdom of Thomas attaches as the 14th.
The more important of the works so far dealt with are published in English by M. R. James, The Apocryphal New Testament (1924). See THOMAS, SAINT.
Teaching of the Twelve Apostles (Didache).—This important work was discovered by Philotheos Bryennios in Constantinople and published in 1883. Since that date it has been frequently edited. The bibliography can be found in Schaff's and in Har nack's editions. The book divides itself into three parts. The first (i.–vi.) contains a body of ethical instruction which is founded on a Jewish and probably pre-Christian document which forms the basis also of the Epistle of Barnabas. The second part consists of vii.–xv., and treats of church ritual and discipline; and the third part is eschatological and deals with the second Ad vent. The book is variously dated by different scholars: Zahn assigns it to the years A.D. 80-120; Harnack to 12o-165 ; Light foot and Funk to 8o–Ioo; Salmon to 120. (See Salmon in Dict. of Christ. Biog. iv. 8o6-815, also article DIDACHE.) Apostolical Constitutions.—For the various collections of these ecclesiastical regulations—the Syriac Didascalia, Ecclesiastical Canons of the Holy Apostles, etc.—see separate article.
(c) Epistles.—The Abgar Epistles.—These epistles are found in Eusebius (H.E. i. 3), who translated them from Syriac. They are two in number, and purport to be a petition of Abgar Uchomo, king of Edessa, to Christ to visit Edessa, and Christ's answer, promising after his ascension to send one of his disciples, who should "cure thee of thy disease, and give eternal life and peace to thee and all thy people." Lipsius thinks that these letters were manufactured about the year 200. (See Diet. Christ Biog. iv. 878-881, with the literature there mentioned.) The above cor respondence, which appears also in Syria, is inwoven with the legend of Addai or Thaddaeus. The best critical edition of the Greek text will be found in Lipsius, Acta Apostolorum Apocrypha, 1891, pp. (See also ABGAR.) Epistle of Barnabas.—The special object of this epistle was to guard its readers against the danger of relapsing into Judaism. The date is placed by some scholars as early as 70-79, by others as late as the early years of the emperor Hadrian, 117. The text has been edited by Hilgenfeld in 1877, Gebhardt and Harnack in 1878, and Funk in 1887 and 1901. In these works will be found full bibliographies. (See further BARNABAS.) Epistle of Clement.—The object of this epistle is the restor ation of harmony to the church of Corinth, which had been vexed by internal discussions. The epistle may be safely ascribed to the years The writer was in all probability the bishop of Rome of that name. He is named an apostle and his work was reckoned as canonical by Clement of Alexandria (Strom. iv. 17. 105), and as late as the time of Eusebius (H.E. iii. 16) it was still read in some of the churches. Critical editions have been published by Gebhardt and Harnack, Patr. Apost. Op., 1876, and in the smaller form in 1900, Lightfoot,' 189o, 1901. The Syriac version has been edited by Kennett, Epp. of St. Clement to the Corin thians in Syriac, 1899, and the Old Latin version by Morin, S. Clementis Romani ad Corinthios epistulae versio Latina anti quissima, 1894. Greek text and English transl. by Kirsopp Lake in Laeb's Classical Library.
"Clement's" and Ep. to the Corinthians.—This so-called letter of Clement is not mentioned by any writer before Eusebius (H.E. iii. 38. 4). It is not a letter but really a homily written in Rome about the middle of the 2nd century. The writer is a Gentile. Some of his citations are derived from the Gospel to the Egyp tians. Kirsopp Lake, op. cit.
"Clement's" Epistles on Virginity.—These two letters are pre served only in Syriac which is a translation from the Greek. They are first referred to by Epiphanius and next by Jerome. Critics have assigned them to the middle of the 2nd century. They have been edited by Beelen, Louvain, 1856.
Clement's Epistles to James.—On these two letters which are found in the Clementine Homilies, see Smith's Pict. of Christian Biography, i. 559, and Lehmann's monograph, Die Clementi schen Schri f ten, Gotha, 1867, in which references will be found to other sources of information.
Epistles of Ignatius.—There are two collections of letters bear ing the name of Ignatius, who was martyred between 1o5 and 117. The first consists of seven letters addressed by Ignatius to the Ephesians, Magnesians, Trallians, Romans, Philadelphians, Smyr neans and to Polycarp. The second collection consists of the pre ceding extensively interpolated, and six others of Mary to Ignatius, of Ignatius to Mary, to the Tarsians, Antiochians, Philippians, and Hero, a deacon of Antioch. The latter collection is a pseudepi graph written in the 4th century or the beginning of the 5th. The authenticity of the first collection also has been denied, but the evidence appears to be against this contention. The literature is overwhelming in its extent. See Zahn, Patr. Apost. Op., 1876; Die apostol. V titer, 1901; Lightfoot,' Apostolic Fathers, 1889. Kirsopp Lake, op. cit.
Epistle of Polycarp.—The genuineness of this epistle stands or falls with that of the Ignatian epistles. See article in Smith's Dictionary of Christian Biography, iv. Lightfoot, Apos tolic Fathers, i. 629-702; Kirsopp Lake, op. cit., also POLYCARP. Pauline Epistles to the Laodiceans and the Alexandrians.—The first of these is found only in Latin. This, according to Lightfoot (see Colossians,' 272-298) and Zahn, is a translation from the Greek. Such an epistle is mentioned in the Muratorian canon. (See Zahn, op. cit. ii. 566-585.) The Epistle to the Alexandrians is mentioned only in the Muratorian canon. (See Zahn ii. 586 For the Third Epistle of Paul to the Corinthians, and Epistle from the Corinthians to Paul, see under "Acts of Paul" above.
(R. H. CH.; W. 0. E. 0.)