BAPTISTS, a body of Christians, distinguished, as their name imports, from other denominations by the view they hold respect ing the ordinance of baptism (q.v.). This distinctive view, com mon and peculiar to all Baptists, is that baptism should be admin istered to believers only. The mode of administration of the ordi nance has not always been the same, and some Baptists (e.g., the Mennonites) still practise baptism by pouring or sprinkling, but among those who will here be styled modern Baptists, the mode of administration is also distinctive, viz., immersion. The primary principle, however, is that of baptism as the basis of a Church of regenerate believers. It should also be understood that the rise of the modern Baptists, whose churches are to be found in all parts of the English-speaking world and many other countries, was wholly independent of the Anabaptist movement in any of its forms (see ANABAPTISTS) .
Smyth died in Holland, but in 1612 Helwys returned to Eng land with his church and formed the first Baptist church worship ping on English soil. The church met in Newgate street, London, and was the origin of the "General" Baptist denomination, so called because they repudiated the Calvinistic doctrine of pre destination and affirmed the Arminian view of individual respon sibility. The next leading event in the history of the Baptists is the rise of the first Calvinistic or Particular Baptist Church. This was the Jacob church in Southwark, which was originally Inde pendent. A group of its members separated (the church having grown beyond what was held proper limits) and in 1633 became the first Particular Baptist Church. Thus there were now in existence in England two sets of Baptists whose origins were quite distinct and who never had any real intercourse as churches. They differed in many respects. The General Baptists were Arminian, owing to the influence of the Mennonite Anabaptists. The Particular Bap tists were Calvinists, springing as they did from the Independents. But on the question of baptism both groups, while they utterly re jected the baptism of infants, were as yet unpledged to immersion and rarely practised it. The development of their doctrine as to baptism was marked along three lines of dispute : (I) who is the proper administrator of baptism? (2) who are the proper subjects? and (3) what is the proper mode? Eventually agreement was reached, and in 1644 a Confession of Faith was published in the names of the Particular Baptist churches of London, now grown to seven, "commonly (though falsely) called Anabaptist." The article on baptism is as follows : "That baptism is an ordinance of the New Testament given by Christ to be dispensed only upon per sons professing faith, or that are disciples, or taught, who upon a confession of faith, ought to be baptized." "The way and man ner of dispensing this ordinance the Scripture holds out to be dipping or plunging the whole body under water." They further declare (particularly in order that they may avoid the charge of being Anabaptists) that "a civil magistracy is an ordinance of God," which they are bound to obey. They speak of the "breath ing time" which they have had of late, and their hope that God would, as they say, "incline the magistrates' hearts so for to tender our consciences as that we might be protected by them from wrong, injury, oppression and molestation"; and then they pro ceed : "But if God withhold the magistrates' allowance and fur therance herein, yet we must, notwithstanding, proceed together in Christian communion, not daring to give place to suspend our practice, but to walk in obedience to Christ in the profession and holding forth this faith before mentioned, even in the midst of all trials and afflictions." From the Restoration (166o) the meetings of nonconformists were continually disturbed and their preachers fined or imprisoned ; but with the Revolution of 1688, and the passing of the Act of Toleration in 1689, the history of the per secution of Baptists as well as of other Protestant dissenters, ends. The subsequent removal of the remaining disabilities, such as those imposed by the Test and Corporation Acts repealed in 1828, has no special bearing on Baptists more than on other non conformists.
The Baptists, having had a double origin, continued for many years in two sections—those who in accordance with Arminian views held the doctrine of "General Redemption," and those who, agreeing with the Calvinistic theory, held the doctrine of "Par ticular Redemption." In the i8th century many of the General Baptists gradually inclined to Arianism or to Socinianism in their view of Christ's person and work; whilst, on the other hand, the Calvinism of the Particular Baptists in many of the churches be came more rigid, and approached or actually became Antinomian ism. In 1770 the orthodox portion of the General Baptists formed themselves into a separate association, under the name of the Gen eral Baptist New Connection, since which time the "Old Connec tion" has gradually merged into the Unitarian denomination. By the beginning of the 19th century the New Connection numbered 40 churches and 3,400 members. Towards the end of the i8th century many of the Particular Baptist churches became more moderate in their Calvinism, a result largely attributable to the writings of Andrew Fuller. Up to this time a great majority of the Baptists admitted none either to membership or communion who were not baptized, the principal exception being the churches in Bedfordshire and Hertfordshire, founded or influenced by Bunyan, who maintained that difference of opinion in respect to water bap tism was no bar to communion. At the beginning of the 19th cen tury this question was the occasion of great and long-continued discussion, in which the celebrated Robert Hall (1764-1831) took a principal part. The practice of mixed communion gradually spread in the denomination. Still more recently many Baptist churches have considered it right to admit to full membership persons professing faith in Christ, who do not agree with them respecting the ordinance of baptism. Such churches justify their practice on the ground that they ought to grant to all their fellow Christians the same right of private judgment as they claim for themselves.
The Baptists early felt the necessity of providing an educated ministry for their congregations. Some of their leading pastors had been educated in one or other of the English universities. Gen erous bequests made it possible to found an academy in Bristol for the training of young men for the ministry. In 177o the Bristol Education Society was formed to enlarge this academy; and about the year 1811 the present Bristol Baptist college was erected. In the north of England a similar education society was formed in 1804 at Bradford, Yorkshire, which has since been removed to Rawdon, near Leeds. In London another college was formed in 1810 at Stepney ; it was removed to Regent's park in 1856. The Pastors' college in connection with the Metropolitan Tabernacle was instituted in 1856, and in 1866 the present Baptist college at Manchester was instituted at Bury. Besides these, which were vol untary colleges not under denominational control, the General Bap tists maintained a college from 1797, which, since the amalgama tion of the two Baptist bodies, has become also a voluntary insti tution, though previously supported by the General Baptist Asso ciation. It is called the "Midland Baptist college," and is situated in Nottingham. There is also a Baptist theological college in Glas gow, and there are two colleges in Wales and one in Ireland. The Baptists were the first denomination of British Christians to undertake in a systematic way that work of missions to the hea then which became so prominent a feature in the religious activity of the 19th century. In 1792, the Baptist Missionary Society was formed at Kettering in Northamptonshire. The prime mover in this work was William Carey, who in the course of the following year sailed for India. The great work of Dr. Carey's life was the translation of the Bible into the various languages and dialects of India. The society's operations are now carried on, not only in the East, but in the West Indies, China, Africa (chiefly on the Congo river) and Europe. In Asia the feature of recent years is the growth of strong native missions in India and China, able to organize and carry on their own work.
In regard to church government, the Baptists agree- with the Congregationalists that each separate church is complete in itself, and has, therefore, power to choose its own ministers and to make such regulations as it deems to be most in accordance with the pur pose of its existence, i.e., the advancement of the kingdom of Christ. The greater number of the churches are united in associa tions voluntarily formed, all of them determined by geographical limits. The associations, as well as the churches not in connection with them, are united together in the Baptist Union of Great Britain and Ireland referred to above. The old distinctions of "General" and "Particular" have faded away. Important financial measures are raising the standard of sustentation and superannua tion, and linking the churches in closer fellowship. Much attention is given to the training of lay preachers, whose real importance had been somewhat overlooked. The problem of training and settling ministers is being viewed as a whole, and after careful thought two great changes have been adopted. There is a strong tendency to fix a term for the period of service in any one post, often five years, with the possibility of renewal. Then, to facilitate interchanges and to bring the churches into closer relations with the union, a 17th century office has been revived and modified. General superintend ents work in large areas, one for the English-speaking churches in Wales, one for Scotland, one for London and eight for the rest of England. These ministers confer monthly.
The troubles of Continental Baptists during the World War called forth abundant sympathy and practical help from their brethren. A conference at London in 1920 resulted in linking each national group on the Continent with one of the stronger groups elsewhere, in fostering theological seminaries within each country, and in the most promising students receiving further training in Germany, Sweden, England and America.
The numerical strength of the denomination is given as follows in the Directory of the Baptist World Alliance for 1927:— This excludes Russia, where there are many Baptists (estimated at a million or more), for whom exact returns are not at present available. As the claim has recently been made that Baptists are now the largest Protestant denomination, it may be well to state that the most recent statistics of all types of Methodism show a total of 11,798,185 communicants (Church members and pro bationers).
The eastern secretary of the Baptist World Alliance is Dr. J. H. Rushbrooke, to whose book, The Baptist Movement on the Conti nent of Europe (1923), reference may be made for fuller informa tion as to that area. The standard account of the progress of Bap tist life in Great Britain is Dr. W. T. Whitley's A History of Brit ish Baptists (1923). A History of the Baptists in Scotland (ed. by the Rev. Geo. Yuille) has been published (Glasgow, 1926).
Not included in the foregoing statistics are bodies such as the "Disciples of Christ" (q.v.), practising believers' baptism. The faith of this community is clearly and concisely given by William Robinson in What Churches of Christ Stand For (Birmingham, 1926).
1. Colonial Beginnings.—The first Baptist church in America was founded in the Providence settlement on Narragansett bay, by Roger Williams (q.v.). He had been sentenced to banishment (Oct. 1635) by the Massachusetts court because of his persistence in advocating separatistic and other unacceptable views. To escape deportation to England he betook himself (Jan. 1636) to the wilderness, where the natives gave him a tract of land for a settlement. Having been joined by a few friends from Massachu setts, Williams founded what is generally believed to be the first commonwealth in which absolute religious liberty was combined with civil democracy. He rejected the baptism of infants, and in March 1639, with 11 others, formed a church of baptized believers. Ezekiel Holliman, who had been with him in Plymouth and shared his separatist views, first baptized Williams and then Williams baptized the rest of the company. Soon after, believing that the true ordinances and apostolic church organization had been lost in the general apostasy, Williams, though continuing on friendly terms with the Baptists of Providence, withdrew from the church and assumed the position of a Seeker.
In Nov. 1637 John Clarke (16o9-1676), a physician of religious zeal and theological acumen, arrived at Boston, Massachusetts. Finding the State about to banish the Antinomian minority, in cluding Mrs. Anne Hutchinson (q.v.) and her family, he assisted the fugitives in forming a colony on the island of Aquidnek, R.I., procured from the Indians through the good offices of Williams. By 1641 there were, according to John Winthrop, "professed Ana-baptists" on the island, and Clarke was probably their leader. Mark Lucar, who was baptized by immersion in London in Jan. 1642 (N.S.) and was a member of a Baptist church there, reached Newport about 1644, and formed a connecting link between early English and American Baptists.
The Providence church maintained a rather feeble existence after Williams' withdrawal. A schism occurred in 1652, with a majority contending for general redemption and for the laying on of hands as indispensable to fellowship, and a minority maintain ing particular redemption and rejecting the laying on of hands as an ordinance. The surviving church, composed of the former party, became involved in Socinianism and Universalism, but exerted considerable influence at Newport, in Connecticut, New York and elsewhere. The Newport church extended its influence into Massachusetts, and in 1649 we find a group of Baptists at Rehoboth, with Obadiah Holmes as leader. The intolerance of the authorities rendered the prosecution of the work impracticable and these Massachusetts Baptists became members of the New port church. In 1651 Baptists holding a meeting in a private house were arrested, compelled to attend the church services of the standing order, fined, imprisoned and otherwise maltreated.
Henry Dunster I1612-1659), the first president of the college at Cambridge (Harvard), had by 1653 become convinced that "visible believers only should be baptized." Being unwilling to hold his views in abeyance, he relinquished in 1654, under cir cumstances of considerable hardship, the work that he greatly loved. In 1663 John Myles (1621-83), a Welsh Baptist who had been one of Cromwell's Tryers, with his congregation, took refuge in Massachusetts from the intolerance of the Government of Charles II. and settled in Rehoboth, Massachusetts. Even after they were discovered to be Baptists they were allowed to remain on condition of establishing their meeting-place at a considerable distance from that of the standing order. Some time before 1665 some English Baptists had settled in the neighbourhood of Boston and several others had adopted Baptist views. These were bap tized (May 1665) and joined in a church covenant with those who had been baptized in England. The church was severely perse cuted, the members being frequently imprisoned and fined and denied the use of a building they had erected as a meeting-house. Long after the Act of Toleration (1689) was in full force in England, the Boston Baptists pleaded in vain for the privileges to which they were thereby entitled, and it required the most earnest efforts of English Baptists and other dissenters to gain for them a recognition of the right to exist.
In 1682 William Screven (1629-1713) and Humphrey Church wood, members of the Boston church, gathered and organized, with the co-operation of the mother church, a small congregation at Kittery, Maine. Persecution led to migration, Screven and a few of the members making their way to South Carolina, where, with a number of English Baptists of wealth and position, what became the First Baptist church in Charleston was organized (about 1684). A few Baptists of the General (Arminian) type ap peared in Virginia from 1714 onward, and were organized and fostered by missionaries from the English General Baptists. By 1727 they had invaded North Carolina, where a church was con stituted later.
From 1643 onward Antipaedobaptists from New England and elsewhere had settled in the New Netherlands (New York).
Francis Doughty, an English Baptist who had spent some time in Rhode Island, laboured in this region in 1656 and baptized a num ber of converts. This proceeding led to his banishment. From 1711 onward Valentine Wightman (1681-1747) of Connecticut (General Baptist) made occasional missionary visits to New York at the invitation of Nicolas Eyres, a business man who had adopted Baptist views, and helped to organize a church. A number of Baptists settled on Block island about 1663. Some time before 1724 a Baptist church (probably Arminian) was formed at Oyster Bay.
The Quaker colonies, with their large measure of religious liberty, early attracted a considerable number of Baptists from New England, England and Wales. About 1684 a Baptist church was founded at Cold Spring, Bucks county, Pennsylvania. The Pennepek church was formed in 1688. Services were held in Philadelphia under the auspices of the Pennepek church from 1687 onward, but independent organization did not occur till 1698. Almost from the beginning general meetings had been held by the churches of these colonies. In i 707 the Philadelphia Associa tion was formed as a delegated body "to consult about such things as were wanting in the churches and to set them in order." From its inception this body proved highly influential in promot ing Baptist co-operation in missionary and educational work, in efforts to supply the churches with suitable ministers and to silence unworthy ones, and in maintaining sound doctrines. Sabbatarian ism appeared within the bounds of the association at an early date and Seventh-day Baptist churches were formed (1705 onward).
The decades preceding the "Great Awakening" of 1740-43 were a time of religious declension. A Socinianized Arminianism had paralysed evangelistic effort. The First church, Providence, and the First church, Boston, had become Socinianized and discoun tenanced the revival. The First church, Newport, had been rent asunder by Arminianism, and the nominally Calvinistic remnant had itself become divided on the question of the laying on of hands. The First church, Charleston, had been wrecked by Socini anism. The General (Six Principles) Baptists of Rhode Island and Connecticut had increased their congregations and member ship, and before the beginning of the 18th century had inaugu rated annual associational meetings. But the fact that the Great Awakening in America was conducted on Calvinistic principles was sufficient to prevent their hearty co-operation. The churches of the Philadelphia Association were organized and engaged to some extent in missionary endeavour, but they showed little inter est in the Edwards-Whitefield movement. And yet the Baptists ultimately profited by the Great Awakening beyond almost any of the denominations. In many New England communities a majority in the churches of the standing order bitterly opposed the new evangelism, and those who came under its influence felt constrained to organize "Separate" or "New Light" churches. These were severely persecuted by the dominant party and were denied even the scanty privileges that Baptists had succeeded in gaining. In several cases entire "Separate" churches transformed themselves into Baptist churches. In many cases a division of sentiment arose regarding infant baptism, but for a while mutual toleration prevailed. Mixed churches, however, had their manifest disadvantages and separation ultimately ensued.
The feeble Baptist cause in Virginia and North Carolina had been considerably strengthened by missionaries from the churches of the Philadelphia Association, and several churches, formed or reformed under their influence, united with the association. In 1776 the Ketockton Association was formed by this group of churches. The Virginia colonial Government, in earlier days cruelly intolerant, gave a limited toleration to Baptists of this type; but the "Separate" Baptists were too enthusiastic and too much alive to the evils of State control in religious matters to be willing to take out licences for their meetings, and soon came into sharp conflict with the authorities. Shubael Stearns, with about a dozen fellow-believers, settled at Sandy Creek, N.C., and in a few years had built up a church with a membership of more than 600. Marshall afterwards organized and ministered to a church at Abbott's Creek about 3om. distant. From these centres "Sepa rate" Baptist influence spread throughout North and South Caro ling and across the Georgia border. From North Carolina as a centre, "Separate" Baptist influence permeated Virginia and ex tended into Kentucky and Tennessee. The Sandy Creek Associa tion came to embrace churches in several colonies, and Stearns, desirous of preserving the harmonious working of the churches that recognized his leadership, resisted with vehemence all pro posals for the formation of other associations.
From 176o to 177o the growth of the "Separate" Baptist body in Virginia and the Carolinas was phenomenal. The Sandy Creek Association, with Stearns as leader, undertook to "unfellowship ordinations, ministers and churches that acted independently," and provoked such opposition that a division of the association be came necessary. The General Association of Virginia and the Congaree Association of South Carolina now took their places side by side with the Sandy Creek. The Virginia "Separate" Baptists had more than doubled their numbers in the two years from May 1771 to May 1773. In 1774 some of the Virginia brethren became convinced that the apostolic office was meant to be perpetuated and induced the association to appoint an apostle. This arrangement, soon abandoned, was no doubt suggested by Methodist superintendency. In 1775 Methodist influence appeared in the contention of two of the apostles and Jeremiah Walker for universal redemption. Schism was narrowly averted by concilia tory statements on both sides. As a means of preserving harmony the Philadelphia Confession of Faith, a Calvinistic document, with provision against too rigid a construction, was adopted and a step was thus taken toward harmonizing with the "Regular" Baptists of the Philadelphia type. When the General Association was sub divided (1783), a general committee made up of delegates from each district association was constituted to consider matters that might be for the good of the whole society. Its chief work was to continue the agitation in which for some years the body had been successfully engaged in favour of religious equality and the entire separation of Church and State.
Since 1780 the "Separate" Baptists had had the hearty co operation of the "Regular" Baptists in their struggle for religious liberty and equality. In 1787 the two bodies united and agreed to drop the names "Separate" and "Regular." The success of the Baptists of Virginia in securing step by step the abolition of everything that savoured of religious oppression, involving at last the disestablishment and the disendowment of the Episcopal Church, was due in part to the fact that Virginia Baptists were among the foremost advocates of American independence, and that they secured the co-operation of free-thinking statesmen like Thomas Jefferson and James Madison and, in most measures, that of the Presbyterians.
The Baptist cause in New England that had profited so largely from the Great Awakening failed to reap a like harvest from the War of Independence. The standing order in New England repre sented the patriotic and popular party. Baptists lost favour by threatening to appeal to England for a redress of their grievances at the very time when resistance to English oppression was being determined upon. Though a large proportion of the New England Baptists co-operated heartily in the cause of independence, the denomination failed to win popularity.
About 1762 the Philadelphia Association began to plan for the establishment of a Baptist institution of learning that should serve the entire denomination. Rhode Island was finally fixed upon, and James Manning (1738-91), who had just graduated from Princeton with high honours, was sent to Rhode Island (1763) to confer with leading men, Baptists and others. As a result a charter was granted by the legislature in 1764, and after a few years of preliminary work at Warren (where the first de grees ever bestowed by a Baptist institution were conferred in 1769), Providence was chosen as the home of the college (1770). Here, the institution (since 1804 known as Brown university) was for many years the only degree-conferring institution con trolled by Baptists.
In 1751 the Charleston Association was formed, also on the model of the Philadelphia Association, and proved an element of denominational strength. The association raised funds for domes tic missionary work (1755 onward) and for the education of ministers (1756 onward). Brown university shared largely in the liberality of members of this highly cultivated and progressive body. The remarkable numerical progress of Baptists in South Carolina from 1787 to 1812 (from 1,620 members to 11,325) was due to the "Separate" Baptist movement under Stearns far more than to the activity of the churches of the Charleston Asso ciation. Both these types of Baptist life permeated Georgia, the latter making its influence felt in Savannah, Augusta and the more cultivated communities, the former evangelizing the masses. Many negro slaves became Baptists in Virginia, the Carolinas and Georgia. In most cases they became members of the churches of the white Baptists; but in Richmond, Savannah and some other towns they were encouraged to have churches of their own. By 1812 there were in the United States 173,972 Baptist Church members, the denominational numerical strength having consid erably more than doubled since the beginning of the 19th century.
State conventions were organized throughout the States, as a means of co-operation in the support of feeble churches and the extension of home missionary activity. A number of journals were also founded. After Adoniram Judson and Luther Rice, who had gone as missionaries to India under the auspices of the Ameri can Board of Foreign Missions, became Baptists en route there was organized in 1813 the Baptist Society for Propagating the Gospel in India and other Foreign Parts. In 1832 the American Baptist Home Mission Society was organized for work on the American continents. In 1824 was organized the Baptist General Tract Society which, in 1840, became the American Baptist Publi cation Society. The struggle of the United States over slavery resulted in a division within the Baptist ranks and the southern Baptists withdrew to organize the Southern Baptist Convention, with a foreign mission board, a home mission board and a Sunday school board. This separation has never been overcome, although in 1891 the Baptist Young People's Union of America somewhat united Baptist interests, and the Baptist World Alliance has also given a new sense of unity to the American Baptists as well as to those of the rest of the world.
The Southern Baptist Convention is vigorously expressing itself in various forms of denominational activity in the South. South ern Baptists have declined to enter the Federal Council of the Churches of Christ in America. The Southern Baptist Convention is organized somewhat differently from the Northern, having boards rather than societies. A large number of Southern Baptist churches are in rural districts. Theologically, the Southern Bap tists are conservative and especially insistent upon immersion as the mode of baptism. Their development in wealth and prestige, especially noteworthy in Texas, is attested by their support of two large theological seminaries, two training-schools, 31 colleges and 34 junior colleges. They have established many hospitals and maintain a number of orphanages. They are making, especially through the faculty of the Southern Baptist Theological seminary at Louisville, distinguished contributions to theological scholarship.
The Northern Baptist Convention. Prior to 1907 the Baptist churches of the northern States had no central body to which they could send delegates. There existed a number of societies engaged in foreign and home missions and publication, but these were not strictly representative bodies. In 1907 there was a ten tative organization of a Northern Baptist Convention which was subsequently developed into a permanent body, composed of dele gates from local churches and 37 affiliating organizations, including State conventions. This body has no authority, but has very great influence. In 1927 the Northern Baptists had in the foreign field 794 missionaries; 2,249 churches with 9,615 native workers; 3,818 schools of all grades, with 143,500 pupils; and II5 hospitals and dispensaries. The Northern Baptists maintained 14 seminaries of different grades, two training-schools, 24 univer sities and colleges, four junior colleges and 16 academies. They furnish many leaders in theological thinking and scholarship. The Board of Education aids various colleges and seminaries as well as supporting student pastors at state universities.
For several years the denomination suffered considerable inner disturbance because of the efforts of certain conservative elements in the denomination to get control of the convention and adopt a confession or creed for the churches. This move was so thor oughly opposed to the Baptist policy that it was rejected over whelmingly. By 1928 this agitation had largely passed within the Northern Convention, although it has been continued by members of the Canadian and Southern as well as of the Northern Baptist Convention, who have founded the Baptist Bible Union for the purpose of maintaining what seems to them to be fundamental Baptist positions as opposed to more liberal tendencies.
The Negro Baptists have organized a number of national, or semi-national bodies, the two largest of which are the National Baptist Convention and the National Baptist Convention of America. These bodies maintain various missionary and publica tion societies with admirable buildings; they are well organized and efficiently led. They maintain two theological seminaries, 15 colleges and 13 junior colleges and are active in educating the youth of their churches.
Baptists. For a number of years work has been carried on by Baptists among foreign-speaking immigrants in the United States, and these efforts have resulted in the estab lishment of a number of Baptist conventions and other organiza tions in the various nationalities. The largest of these bodies are the German and Swedish Conventions, which represent a total membership of something like 65,000. In addition smaller bodies of Danish, Norwegian, Czechoslovak, Polish, Hungarian, Finnish, Italian, French, Portuguese, Rumanian and Russian bodies have been organized. There are also a large number of unorganized, foreign-speaking Baptists. The entire membership of all the f or eign-speaking Baptist bodies, so far as is known, is approximately 83,000. These f oreign-speaking groups have been of great value in the process of "Americanization," for the second generation either speaks English or joins English-speaking churches.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.-H. C. Vedder, History of the Baptists (rev. ed., Bibliography.-H. C. Vedder, History of the Baptists (rev. ed., 189 7) ; The Baptist World Alliance, Second Congress (191I) ; The Baptist World Alliance (1923) ; S. Pearce Carey, William Carey, D.D. (1923) ; J. H. Rushbrooke, The Baptist Movement in the Continent of Europe (1923) ; W. T. Whitley, A History of British Baptists (1923) ; Sir James Marchant, Dr. John Clifford (1924) ; American Baptist Year Book. (A. H. N.; S. M.)