BIOLOGICAL SURVEY. The Biological Survey is one of the eleven bureaus among which are distributed the various lines of research and most of the allied activities of the United States Department of Agriculture. Its functions are investigations for the classification, conservation, utilization, and control of the wild life of the country, the administration of Federal laws for the protection of migratory birds and the prevention of illegal interstate commerce in game and furs, and foreign importations of harmful wild birds and mammals. Federal bird and large-game reservations distributed from the Atlantic to the Pacific and in Alaska, Porto Rico, and the Hawaiian islands are under its ad ministration. The term "wild life" as used here comprises all the vertebrates, except the fishes.
The research work of the bureau includes the technical study of the thousands of species making up the wild life of the United States and adjacent regions, with investigations of their habits, distribution, and economic relations. The responsibilities of the bureau require also its active participation in the conservation and increase of the useful and harmless species and the control or de struction of those economically injurious. These present many difficult problems, which involve the interest of the people of the entire country to an extent not commonly realized.
On July I, 1886, wild-life research was first established as a distinct unit in the Department of Agriculture, with three em ployees and an annual appropriation from Congress of $5,000. At that time the work undertaken was the study of the migra tion of American birds and the distribution and food habits of the birds and mammals. On July I, 1927, the number of employees in the Biological Survey exceeded 1,300, and the appropriation made available by Congress for its operations during the year amounted to $1,346,955. In addition, co-operative funds, mainly to be expended in field work for the control of injurious mam mals under the direction of the bureau, amounting to more than $1,000,000, were contributed by the various States.
Owing to the numbers of birds—estimated to exceed 4,000,000, 000 in the United States—their importance to man as game and as destroyers of noxious insects on a gigantic scale, and because of their attractiveness in form, colour and notes, they may be listed as of first importance in our wild life resources. The mam mals, however, including both game and fur-bearers, make a close second. What has been accomplished in building up wild-life resources in certain States proves that with a nation-wide exercise of wise conservation, these resources might be increased.
As against the benefits derived from the useful species, man suffers heavy annual losses from various destructive forms of wild life. The pests fall into two groups: firstly, the predatory animals, such as the wolf, coyote, puma, lynx, and a few others, which kill domestic animals ; and secondly, the rodents, of which the house rat, prairie dog, various species of ground squirrel, pocket gopher, hare, and rabbit, which destroy the farmers' prod ucts in field and granary, are the most harmful. Both the preda tory animals, and the rodents are most numerous in the more thinly populated parts of the country west of the Mississippi. The house rat, however, the most destructive of all, is practi cally everywhere. The losses through predatory animals in the United States have been estimated to be more than $2o,000,000 annually. Investigations by the Biological Survey indicate an approximated annual loss by house rats of $2oo,000,000. The an nual losses from all other rodent pests have been estimated as about $3oo,000,000. Nearly half the total appropriations for the bureau and all the co-operative funds made available by the States for its operations are for the purpose of controlling these losses.
The methods of control of the pests developed by the Biologi cal Survey were soon found to be effective. As a result, States throughout the country have joined forces and are making the campaigns of control joint efforts by the Federal and State governments. Under unified direction by the Biological Survey, these losses have been practically eliminated over considerable areas.
Since 1916, when the control of wild animal pests became the major single activity of the bureau, the kill among the larger predatory animals has been as f ollows: Wolves, 6,233; coyotes (prairie wolves), more than 5oo,000 pumas, 1,877. To accom plish this requires the directed efforts of from 25o to nearly 600 hunters each year, the number varying with the season. They use poison, traps, and the rifle.
In the control of the rodent pests, which exist in great numbers over a vast territory, the usual method is to poison them. With the co-operation of farmers and other landowners, poison has been placed over many millions of acres of farming and grazing land and a great reduction made in the abundance of these pests. In considerable areas the prairie dog has been exterminated.
Since 192o the Biological Survey has been charged with the investigation of the reindeer industry in Alaska, and the develop ment of scientific methods for its improvement and up-building. Between 1892 and 1902 a total of 1,28o reindeer were brought to Alaska by the Bureau of Education from eastern Siberia, and in 1927 they had increased to more than 5oo,000 in addition to over 15o,000 that had been killed for their meat and hides.
Enforcement of Federal game laws has also become part of the work of the bureau. Most far-reaching of these is the Act to enforce the provisions of the Migratory Bird Treaty with Great Britain for the protection of the migratory birds that live part of their lives in the United States and part in Canada. Another law is the Lacey Act to prevent the illegal interstate traffic in game and furs, and controlling the importation of living wild birds and mammals, to prevent the introduction of injurious species. The Survey co-operates with the Alaska Game Com mission in the enforcement of the Alaska game and fur laws, and its chief representative in Alaska serves as executive officer of the commission.
All the varied activities of the Biological Survey are based on the scientific research of its staff of naturalists and other trained men. Their field investigations during many years have accumu lated a great store of information concerning the distribution and habits of the wild mammals and birds of North America, and have amassed a study collection containing about 6o,000 birds and i37,000 mammals.
A continual effort is made through the press and by popular articles to inform the public in regard to the value of useful wild life, the conditions affecting it, and the needs of conservation, in order that it may be maintained. The contributions by the bureau to these subjects are published in the departmental series of bulletins and circulars and in a technical series known as "North American Fauna," the latest of which is numbered 5o. These technical reports consist of monographic revisions of groups of mammals, reports on the results of life-zone surveys of State and other major areas, and other technical matter relating to the wild life of the continent.
These publications, the data in the files, and the reference collections constitute the largest store of information available on the wild life of any continent, and make the Biological Survey, with its staff of scientific naturalists, the main centre of informa tion concerning the conservation, utilization, and control of the wild life of North America. The information amassed is being increasingly consulted by wild-life administrators and naturalists in the U.S.A. and abroad, and is of especial use to State game commissions and other organizations in problems constantly aris ing locally, but requiring for their solution the nation-wide ex perience of the Biological Survey.
To conduct its work effectively the bureau is directed by a chief directly responsible to the secretary of agriculture. Under his immediate supervision are the general administrative officers, and the heads of six technical divisions, as follows: 1. Division of Biological Investigations.—Under this head are grouped most of the fundamental scientific investigations of the bureau. The scientific staff is made up of experienced mam malogists, ornithologists, herpetologists, and botanists. They make taxonomic studies especially of groups of mammals and birds and identify specimens sent in by field parties as well as great num bers sent by individuals and institutions throughout the country. Some of the results of these studies have appeared as mono graphic revisions of genera of birds and mammals and the de scriptions of hundreds of species and geographic subspecies of mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and plants new to science.
The members of this scientific staff also are leaders of the field expeditions sent out to determine the distribution and habits of wild-life species. During the entire history of the bureau, biologi cal field explorations have been among its major undertakings. Parties of trained field naturalists have done intensive work over a large part of the United States, and in Alaska, Canada, Mexico, Guatemala, and Panama. Many of these expeditions have gained a definite knowledge of the faunas and to a minor extent the native floras, of great areas, which up to that time had been almost unknown. Among the most notable of these have been expeditions to the Hudson's bay region and the Mackenzie river in Canada, to remote parts of Panama, and explorations covering every part of Mexico during a period of 14 years.
Early in the history of the Biological Survey the then chief, Dr. C. Hart Merriam, developed the idea defining transcontinental life zones dependent on the distribution of life as determined basically by temperatures, mainly during the breeding, growing, and fruiting seasons, modified by humidity and other factors. One of the principal objects of the field work of the bureau has been to determine the characteristic species of mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and plants of the different zones. The in formation so obtained with that available from other sources has supplied the data from which a life zone map of North America has been produced. A systematic series of life-zone surveys of several States is in progress and for some it has been completed and the results published with zone maps. To complete a life zone survey of a State requires intensive field work in every part of its territory to cover all the varying contours and elevations, since the distribution of life is often dependent on special local conditions.
The study of the migration of North American birds through out the United States is another project that has been carried on from the beginning. Several hundred co-operating volunteer ob servers have for years kept track of and reported upon the move ments of birds during the spring and fall migrations at stations in many parts of U.S.A. and Canada. The information gathered from these and other sources has supplied valuable data.
With the enforcement of the terms of the Migratory Bird Treaty with Great Britain was developed the need of having more exact knowledge of the migratory travels of individual birds. To obtain this the bureau took over in 1920, from the private or ganization that had it in hand, the banding (or ringing) of birds and developed this method of research into an international pro gramme through the co-operation of Canada. By the end of 1927 the voluntary co-operators banding birds numbered more than 1,200, and had become organized into four regional associations covering all parts of the United States and Canada ; more than 384,00o birds, mainly migratory species, had been banded; and about i 6,000 had been retaken, thus supplying invaluable in formation concerning their travels. The information thus ob tained in regard to ducks, geese, and other migratory wild fowl is of very practical value in connection with the administration of the Migratory Bird Treaty Act.
To gain a more definite knowledge of the bird population of the country, a system of censuses or counts of breeding birds is being made on definite areas during successive breeding seasons. More than i oo censuses of this character have been made by volunteer enumerators through a term of years, with such closely correspond ing results at widely separated localities as to indicate their ap proximate accuracy. These counts show averages of about 2.5 breeding birds to each acre of farming land, of one breeding bird to from r • 5 to three acres of open prairie land, and one breeding bird to from one to two acres of forest.
By 192o, the amazing increase of the reindeer herds in Alaska demanded attention as a new form of animal husbandry. To meet the situation an accomplished veterinarian and parasitologist and two grazing experts were placed in the field to try to overcome some of the troubles that had arisen in handling the herds. The results of this work, which is still continuing, have been of the greatest practical value. Many of the troubles with parasites have been much lessened and the methods of . herd management have been greatly improved.
Experiments are being made to breed up the reindeer by cross ing them with the larger wild caribou bulls from the interior of Alaska. The first crosses as yearlings are much larger than the pure-blooded reindeer in the same herd.
Through co-operation of the Biological Survey with the De partment of Interior of Canada, two young Canadians familiar with the northern flora spent the greater part of a year in the field with the experts of this bureau among the reindeer herds in Alaska for the purpose of learning the methods of herd man agement, with a view to establishing the reindeer industry in northern Canada. This is now being undertaken.
A reindeer experiment station has been established by the sur vey at Fairbanks in co-operation with the Alaska Agricultural college. Breeding experiments will be continued there with a view to improving the reindeer by developing larger and more hardy stock and also experiments to develop beyond its present abilities the reindeer as a winter draught animal in the north.
The analyses of stomach contents have supplied much of the information on which are based the laws protecting insectivorous birds throughout the country. At the same time current prob lems are constantly arising as to the destructiveness of vast flocks of blackbirds, hordes of crows, and fruit-eating birds, and methods are being developed for the control or destruction of offenders.
A study of the wild-fowl food resources of large sections of the country is being made by a survey of the vegetation of water and marsh areas. The knowledge thus gained is being used by owners of water areas who obtain the co-operation of the bureau in studying conditions in their waters and in recommending the planting of additional food plants suitable to such localities. Other investigations of a practical nature in relation to the main tenance and production of upland game birds have been in prog ress for years. During the past five years, in co-operation with sportsmen having large estates in Georgia and Florida, a detailed and comprehensive study has been made of the "bobwhite" quail with a view to the control of its enemies and the better mainte nance of its numbers. One startling result of this work was the determination of the fact that over a large area of typical "bob white" country more than 8o% of the nests were destroyed each season by enemies.
Investigations on a considerable scale have continued through many years to learn the effective methods of attracting useful birds and increasing their numbers about towns, on farms, and in forests. From the examination of their stomachs, the favour ite food plants of many species have been learned and bulletins have been issued giving information concerning the more de sirable kinds of plants to introduce or to encourage in different sections of the country.
The breeding of ducks, geese, and other wild fowl in captivity is being thoroughly studied, in order that this utilization of wild life may be developed and thus provide game for the market now that the supply of wild birds has diminished until their sale is no longer permitted.
All the studies named are essential to the building up of Ameri can wild life resources, and supply economic information needed in connection with the control of the harmful species.
The destruction of noxious rodents is carried on mainly by the use of poisoned grain or pieces of vegetables coated with strychnine or other poison. To deal effectively with rodents re quires an intimate knowledge of their food habits. Hundreds of millions of acres, including the best farming lands in their territory, are infested with one or more species of injurious ro dents, which, uncontrolled, in some districts render agriculture unprofitable. In each of the Rocky Mountain and other Western States, where the injury is greatest, the bureau has headquarters at the capital or other central point. There the leaders of the preda tory animal and rodent work have offices and guide the work of their forces and of the co-operating farmers or stockmen in the districts in which operations are being conducted. The field work is planned to cover certain areas under the direction of experi enced men, and great numbers of traps, poisoned grain and other supplies are furnished from headquarters. The capture of certain cunning wolves or other notorious stock-killers at times requires a long persistent hunt, sometimes extending over weeks or even months.
The hourz rat has to be combated mainly in towns and about other habitations of men. While millions of the pests have been poisoned, the most effective and far-reaching work against them has been in bringing about the cleaning up of trash piles and other shelter, the rat-proofing of new and old buildings, and the isola tion of food in rat-proof storage and other containers.
In order to continue the production of the best poison combina tions for rodents and baits for predatory animals, a well-equipped laboratory is maintained in Denver (Colo.) . There during the year 1927, 127,000 ounces of strychnine were used for the purposes mentioned.
The Biological Survey has had two striking problems of na tional significance to solve in relation to wild animals. First, the control of rabies among coyotes and other wild animals, which had spread from California over four neighbouring States and was threatening to extend with appalling results over all the re maining Western States. In 1916, when the task of stopping this was given the bureau, the disease spread from Nevada into Utah before the organization to control it had been completed. The loss in all kinds of livestock for the preceding year in Nevada was estimated by the stock-owners to exceed $500,000. During the first year of operations the spread of the malady was stopped by a campaign to destroy predatory animals in great numbers over six States, and within the next two seasons it was completely under control. Since then outbreaks of rabies have occurred repeatedly in widely distributed areas in the Western States, but all have been promptly suppressed by concentrating about them strong forces of hunters, who have cleaned up the wild and domestic predatory animals serving as carriers.
The second great problem was concerned with the suppression of the foot-and-mouth disease among the deer on the western slope of the Sierra Nevada in Stanislaus County, California. This disease had been imported into the State and before all the in fected livestock had been killed the infection had been spread on the range along a part of the mountain slope among the mule deer, which were abundant all along these and neighbouring mountains for hundreds of miles. The general spread of the disease among the deer along the ranges would have infected many thousands of cattle and sheep and would have meant a quarantine against California by all the other States. The result would have been losses running into vast sums and the temporary wrecking of the States' agriculture and commerce. A large corps of the best hunters, numbering more than 200 at one time, was employed and a series of camps established encompassing the lower border of the territory towards which approaching win ter would force the deer as snow came higher up. By the use of rifles and other methods more than 23,000 mule deer were killed in this infected area. About i o% showed signs of the disease. In the spring, men were stationed in the mountain passes and no deer were permitted to make their accustomed way across for fear of infecting the far slope. This campaign proved to be an absolute success and not an infected deer was taken outside the "iron ring" of hunters. No trace of the disease has since appeared in this area. It is now being restocked with deer, and grazing there by livestock has been resumed.
In the various phases of this economic work the bureau has had hearty co-operation from several Federal bureaus, State offi cials, farmers, sportsmen and others interested.
The largest wild life refuge in the United States is on the upper Mississippi, and includes much of the river bottoms for about 3oom. on both sides of the river. The Aleutian reservation in cludes all of the Aleutian chain of islands, extending in a line from the mainland of Alaska westward between Bering sea and the Pacific ocean for a distance of about 1,000 miles. On some of these islands blue fox farming and sheep grazing are now being conducted without detriment to the reservation.
Federal reservations covering a great area in the aggregate have been established, and efforts are being made to increase their num ber to offset the effects of the drainage of the great water areas required by the birds. The need of vigorous protection of migra tory wild fowl is shown by the fact that for the hunting seasons of 1925 and 1926 approximately 5,500,00o hunters went afield in the United States, a large percentage of whom hunted migra tory wild fowl. The collection of migratory birds for scientific or propagating purposes in the United States may be done only under special permits issued through this bureau.
This division also enforces the Lacey Act, which in regulating interstate commerce in game and furs prohibits traffic in them contrary to State laws. Thousands of violations of State and Federal laws are detected each year and valuable assistance is thus given the States in conserving their game and fur resources.
The importation of wild mammals and birds is required by law to be under permit. Agents of the bureau at the principal ports of entry inspect each shipment on arrival. Permits for the harmless kinds are recommended and promptly issued. Harmful species, such as the mongoose and the fruit bat, are denied entry.
(E. W. N.)