BOLIVIA, an inland republic of South America, once a part of the Inca empire and later of the Spanish viceroyalty of Peru and known as the province of Charcas or Upper Peru. It is the fourth largest political division of the continent, and extends, approximately, from 9° 44' to 23° S., and from 58° to 70° W. It is bounded north and east by Brazil, east by Paraguay, south by Argentina and west by Chile and Peru. The boundaries are not clearly defined, large districts being in dispute, particularly with Paraguay. The area is estimated at 514,464 square miles.
The third draining system is that of the great central plateau. This is one of the most elevated of all inland basins lying at over 12,000 feet. It comprises Lake Titicaca near the north end; the Desaguadero, its outlet ; Lake Pampa Aullagas or Poopo into which the Desaguadero flows ; the Lake or Salt Marsh of Coipasa (connected with Poopo by the Lacahahuira, the small outlet of the latter) ; and the great Salar de Uyuni, independent of the rest of the system but receiving the waters of an extensive, though very arid region, at the south end. Into this system enter many short streams from the neighbouring heights, chiefly the Cor dillera Real, with its immense snow fields. Having no outlet to the sea the water of this extensive basin is wholly absorbed by the dry soil and by excessive evaporation. Lake Titicaca, the most important feature of the plateau system, at an elevation of 12,507 ft., is one of the highest large lakes in the world. It is about 125 m. long and has a maximum width of 69 (total area about 3,200 sq.m.). The indented shore offers much topographic variety, sometimes rising abruptly, sometimes running back in low gentle slopes. It is divided into two main parts by the peninsulas of Copacabana and Huata, the narrow strait of Tiquina, between these peninsulas, connecting the two almost separated bodies of water. The southern arm, covering approximately one-fifth of the total area, is known as the Laguna de Uinamarca, the name Titicaca being applied sometimes only to the larger body. Over much of its extent, particularly in Uinamarca, the lake is so shallow that small steamers often run aground, but toward its eastern side there is a long trough 892 ft. deep at its deepest point. The level fluctuates seasonally, summer rains and melting snows accounting for a rise of 5 to 6 feet. Many islands dot the sur face of the lake. The largest of these, the Isla del Sol, also some times called Titicaca, contains highly interesting archaeological monuments, principally the ruins of well-constructed stone build ings and paved roads, remnants of the skilled workmanship of Inca or pre-Inca peoples. This island is generally considered to have been the cradle of Inca civilization, or better, perhaps, the refuge of survivors from the earlier civilization that apparently centred about the very ancient metropolis of Tiahuanaco, just east of the lake, where are extensive ruins of admirable stone constructions. From this island the founders of Cuzco and of the Inca empire are thought to have migrated. On the smaller Island of the Moon (or Coati) impressive ruins also exist. Having an outlet and a fairly constant inflow, largely of melted snow, the water of Lake Titicaca is fresh, except in the shallower parts where rapid evaporation leaves it slightly brackish. The tem perature of the water is very low, being little above freezing dur ing much of the year, but never low enough to form ice. Strong winds are often encountered and squalls are frequent during the summer thunder-storms. Where the margins of the lake are shal low the shore is fringed with a border of bull-rush (totora) that is excellent forage for cattle and supplies material for building reed boats, making mats and thatching. There are several excellent kinds of fish, while ducks and other water fowl abound in the shallower portions. Lake Titicaca belongs partly to Bolivia and partly to Peru, the boundary crossing near the middle from the north-east to south-west. Transportation is carried by many small native totora craft, by boats of imported lumber and by several small steamers. On the north-west side a railway reaches the Peruvian port of Puno, and on the south-east side a line from La Paz extends to the Bolivian port of Huaqui (or Guaqui), steamers connecting these rail heads. Only one bridge has been built across the river, at the point where it emerges from the lake, but mule trains and caravans of llamas ford it at many points. Several im portant old roads along which the silver, gold and other products of this region reached the Pacific coast for four centuries cross the Desaguadero in this fashion.
Lake Pampa Aullagas (Poopo) is quite different in character from Lake Titicaca. It occupies a very shallow depression in the plateau only a few feet below the general level of the surround ing land and is nowhere more than 15 ft. deep at normal stage. However, it covers about i,000 sq.m. at low stage, and the sur rounding land is so flat that the lake reaches sometimes almost to Oruro, fully 3o m. from the low-water shore. During low stage Poopo receives daily (chiefly from the Desaguadero) about 775 cu.ft. per second, while it discharges through its outlet but a little over 210 cu.ft. per second, the difference representing its apparent loss by evaporation. The Lacahahuira, the only visible outlet of Lake Poopo, moves underneath the sand and empties into the Salar de Coipasa which, at high water, covers about the same area as Lake Poopo at low water, but usually consists only of wide, marshy, salt-encrusted wastes, with a small permanent body of water in the lowest part. There is no outlet. The Salar de Uyuni is of a similar character but much larger than Coipasa. It covers not far from 3,500 sq.m., and consists wholly of salt encrusted swamp, except as pools of water form at times in the lower places. Like Coipasa, it has no outlet. The Rio Grande de Lipez is its most important affluent ; the district is almost rain less.
The yungas climatic zone comprises all the lowlands and the mountain valleys up to an elevation of 5,000 feet. The atmosphere is exceedingly humid. The mean temperature is about 77° F, with no great departures from this, and the rainfall, occurring throughout the year, is heavy (3o-5o in. at least). The valle zone includes the deep valleys from 5,000 to 9,500 ft., has a warm climate with moderate variations in temperature and no cold weather and is semi-tropical in character and productions. The cabecera de valle, as the name indicates, includes the heads of the deep valleys above the valle zone, with elevations ranging from 9,50o to il,000 ft.; its climate is temperate, though subject to an occasional frost in winter, and is favourable to the produc tion of cereals and vegetables. Both in the valle and the cabecera de valle there is likely to be a scarcity of rain but there is in most cases an abundant supply of water for irrigation. The puna, which lies between i i,000 and 12,500 ft., includes the great central plateau. It is always cool and shows little difference be tween summer and winter, except in the matter of rainfall, the former season bringing only rain, while occasional snow falls in winter. The air is too cold for crops except potatoes, barley and a few others. Mean temperature is estimated at 50•4° F (La Paz). The puna brava extends from 12,500 ft. up to the snow limit (about i 8,000 ft.) and covers a bleak, inhospitable territory, inhabited only by shepherds and miners. Above this is an Arctic zone within the tropics. In general, the tropical and temperate regions are healthful and agreeable, and have varied and abundant products. It is in these two zones that most of the white people live, as well as many of the Indians. On the tuna, however, par ticularly about the borders of Lake Titicaca, there are districts of dense Indian population, some with over r oo people per square mile. Most of the distinctly Indian settlements are now found above a i,000 feet. It was here that the great cities of the Inca and pre-Inca period were situated, such as Cuzco and Tiahuanaco. Since the peoples who built them were predominantly pastoral and largely dependent upon the llama and the alpaca, they lived in the high cold zone of grass-lands inhabited by these animals. The high rate of mortality among the natives of this region is due in large part to unsanitary habits and diet rather than to climate. In the tropical yungas the ground is covered with de caying vegetation, and there are many good breeding places for mosquitoes; hence malaria and fevers are common. Precipitation is as varied as the temperature. East of the Cordillera Oriental, rains fall throughout the year. On the west side of this Cordil lera, which extracts the moisture from the prevailing easterly winds, the elevated plateaux have a limited rainfall in the north (2i in. at La Paz), which comes only during the summer months and diminishes toward the south until the surface becomes abso lutely barren. Brief and furious thunder-storms, resulting from intense convection, sometimes sweep the northern plateau and Lake Titicaca in summer.
The most important of all the Bolivian animals, however, are the guanaco (q.v.) and its congeners, the llama (q.v.), alpaca (q.v.), and vicuna inhabiting the mountainous regions. So de pendent is the Indian upon the llama and the alpaca that the habitat of these animals very largely determined the bounds of the Inca and pre-Inca civilization. The rearing of llamas and alpacas is a recognized industry in the highlands and is wholly in the hands of the Indians, who alone seem to understand the habits and peculiarities of these interesting animals. A small domesticated variety of the cavy ("guinea pig") is very numerous and has long been raised by the natives, who are particularly fond of its flesh.
Of birds and insects the genera and species are very numerous and interesting. The high sierras are frequented by condors and eagles of the largest size, and the whole country by the common vulture, while the American ostrich (Rhea americana) and a species of large stork (the bata or jabirii, Mycteria aniericana; maximum height, 8 ft.; spread of wings, 8 ft. 6 in.) inhabits the tropical plains and valleys. Water-fowl are numerous both in the lowlands and on the plateau. Among the highland lakes are geese, ducks, grebes, and coots, divers, cormorants and gulls and rosy flamingoes. Some of the forests of the warm valleys and plains are filled with birds of beautiful plumage. Many species of hum ming-birds are found even far up in the mountains, and great numbers of parrots, macaws and toucans, brilliant of feather but harsh of voice, enliven the forests of the lowlands. Insect life is abundant and varied at the lower levels, but from ro,000 ft. up is largely lacking. Silkworms have been bred with success in some departments.
Like other South American States, Bolivia benefited greatly from the introduction of European animals. Horses, cattle, donkeys, sheep, goats, swine and poultry were introduced, and are now sources of food and wealth to a large part of the population. The horses and mules are largely imported from the Argentine pampas, since the plateau where most of them are used is too high for their successful breeding.
Flora.—Owing to the diversities in altitude the flora of Bolivia represents every climatic zone, from the scanty Arctic vegetation of the lofty Cordilleras to the luxuriant tropical forests of the Amazon basin. Between these extremes the diversity in vegetable life is as great as that of climate and soil. The flora has been little studied because of the inaccessibility of the inland regions. The plateau is primarily a grass-land. Above io,000 ft. few trees are found, but where there is even a light rainfall the hill sides and the high plains support a scant growth of coarse bunch grass (Stipa Ychu) which is the principal pasture of domestic stock. This grows up to the snow line. Ichu grass is widely used for mats and thatching. Two other economically important plants are the tola and the yareta; the former a low shrub, the latter a highly resinous moss-like plant which grows in a compact fibrous mass. Both of these are used extensively for fuel. Among the more important cultivated plants of the puna region are the potato, oca (Oxalis tuberosa), and quinua (Chenopodium Quinoa) is widely grown for fodder but does not mature on the puna, while wheat can seldom be grown above o,000 feet. It is now generally agreed that the highland district about Lake Titicaca was the native home of the potato, which constitutes the staple food, particularly above i,000 ft., the usual limit of grains. Indian corn was cultivated in the temperate regions long before the advent of Europeans, and in such districts still is grown ex tensively. Wheat, barley, rye, oats, beans, peas and many vegetables, introduced from the Old World, have found suitable habitats, each at its own level. Among the indigenous plants in the semi-tropical and tropical zones are the sweet-potato, cassava (Manihot utilissima and Ili. Aipi), peanuts, pineapple, guava, chirimoya, pawpaw (Carica papaya), ipecacuanha, sarsaparilla, vanilla, false jalap (Mirabilis jalapa), copaiba, tolu (Myroxylon toluiferum), rubber-producing trees, dyewoods, cotton and a great number of beautiful hardwoods, such as jacaranda, mahogany, rosewood, quebracho, colo, cedar and walnut. Among the fruits many of the most common are exotics, as the orange, lemon, lime, fig, date and grape, while others as the banana, caju or cashew and the avocado or alligator pear, have a disputed origin. Coca, one of the most important plants native to the country, is cul tivated on the eastern slopes at 5,000 ft. to 6,000 ft. altitude, where the temperature is uniform and frosts are unknown. Quina (Cinchona calisaya), from which quinine is extracted, is found at 3,000 ft. to 9,000 feet. Cinchona bark forms an item of export. The most important indigenous forest product is rubber, deriyed principally from the Hevea guayanensis, which grows along nver courses in the lowland regions of the north. The competition of plantation products has seriously affected the native rubber in dustry in these forests. Sugar-cane and rice are cultivated in the warm districts.
The Mojos and the Chiquitos who live on the border between the forests and the grass-lands of far eastern Bolivia, were organized into industrial communities by the Jesuit missions in the r7th century, and have retained something of the culture then imparted to them. Inhabiting the southern plain are the Chiriguanos, a detached tribe of the Guaranis (q.v.). The re maining native tribes have made little progress. Those who live in the deep forests of the Amazon valley have little contact with the whites, except as boatmen along the rivers or as forced gatherers of rubber. The Tobas and Lenguas of the Gran Chaco have successfully repelled every attempt at exploration in the interior of that district. The white population is descended in great part from the early Spanish adventurers and there are some Spanish and Portuguese Americans from neighbouring re publics. This group, numbering only 25o,000, completely domi nates the country. There has been no large recent immigration from Europe and the percentage of whites therefore does not in crease. The mestizos as a rule are ignorant, unprogressive and apathetic. Most of the small scale commerce is carried on by this class; they do most of the skilled labour, and serve as foremen and minor civil servants.
There are thousands of miles of navigable waters in the forested lowlands, furnishing almost the only means of transportation. Many of these streams are obstructed by rapids and fallen trees and light-draught snag-boats patrol some of them. The Madeira Mamore railway was built to avoid the most dangerous of the rapids, but because of the decline of rubber production the road proved unprofitable. As no maritime port can be reached without transhipment in foreign territory, Bolivia is excluded from direct commercial intercourse with other nations. Traffic rights over these routes have, however, been secured by treaties. Bolivia's outlet to the Amazon is restricted to the Madeira river, the navi gation of which is interrupted by the series of falls. The Bolivian port of entry for this trade, Villa Bella, is just above the falls of the Madeira and is reached from the lower river by the Madeira Mamore railway. Connected with the upper Paraguay are Puerto Pacheco on Bahia Negra and Puerto Suarez (about r ,600 m. from Buenos Aires by river) on Lake Caceres, through which passes the bulk of Bolivian trade in that direction. Puerto Suarez is con nected by steam launch with the Brazilian port of Corumba, at the end of the railway leading across Matto Grosso to Sao Paolo.
Telegraph service dates from r 88o, and in 1926 there were 4,090 m. in operation, of which the greater part belonged to the State. The Government also maintains several wireless stations.
The Indians of the plateau grass-lands have been herdsmen from time immemorial and are skilful in small-scale sheep raising. Horses, formerly raised in the north, have not flourished there since the introduction of a peste from Brazil. The Jesuit founders of the Mojos missions stocked the Mojos and Chiquitos llanos with cattle, thus giving an unfailing supply of beef for the neigh bouring inland markets; but their inaccessibility has prevented also sustain large herds of cattle on the more elevated districts, and on the well-watered plains of the Chaco. The fur-bearing chinchilla, a native of the higher plateaux, is also bred.
Agricultural products are chiefly for domestic supply. Cereals, fruits and many vegetables are limited to the temperate interme diate valleys of the eastern Andes, where there is not sufficient tillable land to supply even local demands. Food resources there fore consist largely of indigenous plants suited to the unusual conditions of the region where most of the people live. Of these native crops, the potato, still found growing wild on the hillsides about Lake Titicaca, has probably always been the staple food for the Indians of the plateau and highlands. It is grown between heights of r r,000 and 14,5oo feet. At nearly the same elevation is another indigenous plant, quinua (Chenopodium quinua), appar ently not grown elsewhere, which furnishes a nutritious seed used by the Indians. Maize is seldom found above r r ,000 ft., but is important in the high valleys below that level. Coca (Erythroxy ion coca) is extensively cultivated in the Yungas valleys of Cocha bamba and La Paz. Wheat and barley, as well as many fruits and vegetables, were introduced by the Spaniards, and are grown in the temperate and warm valleys, but only for domestic needs. Sugar-cane also was introduced at an early date, but as the demand for sugar was limited, it was, and is, used chiefly to manufacture rum. Rice is another exotic grown on a small scale in the eastern tropical districts. Tobacco of a fair quality is raised in the warmer regions, while excellent coffee is produced around La Paz and Cochabamba.
The most prominent of the forest industries is rubber-collecting, begun between r 88o and 1890, and reaching a registered annual output of nearly 3,50o metric tons just before the best rubber forests became Brazilian territory in r 903. There still remain extensive rubber areas on the Beni and Madre de Dios. Rubber exports in 1926 were valued at Bs. 5,484,oro. The collection of cinchona bark is one of the oldest forest industries, and the product is of the best. The industry is destructive in method, but there are probably large areas of virgin forest to draw upon.
There is a modern match factory in La Paz, a shoe factory and breweries in Oruro and flour mills in Cochabamba. Small plants make woollen plods, leather, soap, candles, earthenware, cigars, cigarettes, hats, gloves, starch and cheese. Spinning and weaving are Indian household occupations, and exceptionally substantial fabrics are made from llama fleece, cotton and wool. Finer fabrics are woven from alpaca and vicuña wool, sometimes mixed with silk or lamb's wool. The Indians are skilled dyers, tanners and saddlers. There is much water-power, and there are electric light and power plants at La Paz, Cochabamba and elsewhere.
Commerce.—The course of trade in recent years is shown as follows :— Of the exports in 1926, metals were the largest item (Bs. r 13, o4r,roo). Of this sum tin represented approximately 75%, with silver, lead and copper following in this order. Rubber, hides and coca were other exports, while live animals, alpaca wool, quinine, llama wool and coffee were shipped in smaller quantities. These exports went largely to Great Britain (78% in values) and the United States (9%). The Antofagasta route carried 59% of the total exports by tonnage and 75% by value, Arica ranking second. Rubber was the one item that was shipped eastward in quantities (most of the 3,ro5 metric tons exported in 1926, valued at Bs. 5.484,oro, going out via the Amazon route). In the same year the new Argentine route (via La Quiaca) handled a larger amount of exports (15,858 metric tons, valued at Bs. 5,848,133) than did the Peruvian route via Mollendo (5.075 metric tons, of Bs. 2,2oo,oi5 value). Wheat flour was the largest single item of import, with cotton and woollen fabrics, mining machinery, re fined sugar, rice, automobiles, live animals, electrical machinery, hats and confections following. Imports (1926) came chiefly from the United States (29% in values) , Great Britain (22%), Ger many (i i % ), and Chile (11 %) . The Arica-La Paz route carried the largest amount of imports (41% in value), while 25% were brought in via Mollendo and Lake Titicaca and 23% via Anto fagasta.
Finances.—Revenue comes mainly from mineral export duties, from import tariffs, the Government monopolies of alcohol and tobacco, and the Government's share in the income of the rail ways. Export duties (1926) were Bs. and import duties were estimated at Bs. 12,000,000. In 1926 the principal expendi tures were: public debt, Bs. defence, Bs. public instruction, Bs. 3,892,246; department of interior, Bs. 3, 466,082; communications, Bs. 2,171,844; justice, Bs. 2,006,361. The revenue rose from Bs. 12,583,232 in 1910 to Bs. in 1927. Surpluses of Bs. 816,667 and Bs. 1,368,540 were realized in 1918 and 1924 respectively, but in the ten years 1915-1924, the net deficits amounted tc Bs. In 1927 there was a surplus of Bs. 171,999. On Jan. 1, 1925, the national debt was Bs. 127,834,844; it consisted of an external debt of Bs. 92,970,000, internal debt of Bs. 20,647,355, and a floating debt of Bs. 14,217, 489. On June 30, 1927, the public debt was estimated as being Bs. Money and Banking.—In 1908 Bolivia virtually adopted the gold standard. The monetary unit is the silver boliviano, given a value of Bs. 12.5o to English and Peruvian pounds, both of which are legal tender. In 1920 United States gold coins were also declared legal tender, the boliviano having a par value to the dollar of $0•3893. After 1914 practically all the silver coins were exported, and in 1925 the currency was nickel and paper. In 1911 a semi-State bank, the Banco de la Nacion Boliviano, was estab lished. Its original capital was Bs. 15,937,500, of which half was subscribed by the Government. This bank absorbed the Banco de Bolivia y Londres, the Banco Agricola and the Banco Industrial. All national banks operating in Bolivia must subscribe 20% of their capital to the Banco de la Nacion, though foreign banks may place this quota in national bonds. The paid-up capital of the Banco de la Nacion on Dec. 31, 1924, was Bs. 22,000,000, and the republic then held 114,738 of the total of 176,000 shares. A German bank, the Banco Aleman Transatlantico, is the only for eign institution in Bolivia, though banking operations are also conducted through several large foreign mercantile concerns. There are two nationally constituted mortgage banks, the Credit() Hipotecario de Bolivia and the Banco Hipotecario Nacional. In 1914 a law was passed confin ing the right to issue paper cur rency to the Banco de la Nacion.
Department revenues are from excise and land taxes, mining grants, tithes, inheritance taxes, tolls, stamp taxes, subsidies from the national treasury and other small taxes. Expenditures are chiefly for justice, police, public works, public instruction and the church. The many trade taxes recall the old colonial alcabala tax, and augment prices in much the same way, if in lesser degree.
Education.—Although there is free and compulsory education, little progress has been made save in larger cities. Spanish is the language of the dominant minority, but Quichua and Aymara are spoken by the natives and many Indians do not understand Spanish and refuse to learn it. Illiteracy, however, which was 84% in 1900, was lowered to about 6o% by 1925. The amount spent on education rose from Bs. 1,497,643 in 1910 to Bs. 3,892, 246 in 1926. In 1926 there were 1,598 primary schools with 2,765 teachers and 79,973 pupils, as against 733 schools, 938 teachers and 41,587 pupils in 1911. There were in the same year 37 insti tutions of secondary instruction (including 17 colegios nacionales), with 403 instructors and 4,213 students.
The schools are largely under the control of the municipalities, although nearly half of them are maintained by the nation, church and private agencies. The universities at La Paz and Sucre are the only ones teaching any subject but law. The University of La Paz furnishes instruction in law, medicine, theology, obstetrics, pharmacy and dentistry. There are national schools of mines, agriculture and animal husbandry, commerce, bacteriology, agron omy and veterinary science, music, and several normal schools, with a superior normal institute at La Paz, schools of arts and crafts being founded in the principal cities and an institute of applied arts being maintained at La Paz.
Religion.—The State religion is Roman Catholicism, but there is freedom of worship. Roman Catholics numbered 1,609,365 in 1900. There are six bishoprics and an archbishopric. Indian mis sions are entrusted to the Propaganda Fide. An annual appropri ation of about Bs. 121,000 goes to the church, Bs. 23,800 being de voted to the Indian missions, which have charge of fully 20,000 Indians. The religious orders, which have never been suppressed, maintain several convents.
Government is of a unitary or centralized republican type, representative in form, but autocratic in some important particu lars. The Constitution in force (1928) was adopted in 1880. The executive branch is presided over by a president and two vice presidents elected by direct popular vote for four years, and not eligible to re-election for the succeeding term. The president is assisted by ministers of foreign relations and worship ; finance and industry; interior and justice; agriculture and public instruction; war and colonization ; public works and communication. Every executive act must be countersigned by a minister of State, who is held responsible for its character and enforcement, and may be prosecuted before the supreme court for its illegality and effects. The legislative branch is a congress of two houses—a senate and chamber of deputies. The senate has 16 members, two from each department, who are elected by direct popular vote for a period of six years, one-third retiring every two years. The chamber of deputies has 7o members, elected for four years, one-half retiring every two years. In impeachment trials the chamber prosecutes and the senate sits as a court. One of the duties of the chamber is to elect the justices of the supreme court. Congress meets annually for 6o days, which may be extended to 90. The chambers have separate and concurrent powers. Male citizens 21 years of age or over, if single, and 18 years or over, if married, who can read and write and own real estate or have an income of 200 bolivianos a year not for services as a servant may vote. The electoral body is therefore small, and is under the control of a political oligarchy which practically rules the country, whichever party is in power.
The supreme administrator of a department is a prefect ap pointed by and responsible solely to the president. As the prefect appoints subordinate officials, the authority of the national execu tive is wide-spread and may easily become autocratic. There are no legislative assemblies in the departments, and their govern ment rests with the national executive and congress. Subordinate to the prefects are the sub-prefects in the provinces, the corregi dores in the cantons and the alcaldes in the rural districts—all appointed officials. The territories adjacent to Brazil, Paraguay and Peru are governed by three delegados nacionales, appointees of the president. The department capitals have municipal coun cils with jurisdiction over certain local affairs, and over the con struction and maintenance of some of the highways, which will be further developed.
History.—After the defeat of the Incas by the Spaniards in the i6th century the natives were reduced to virtual serfdom and their territory was reorganized as a dependency of the Viceroyalty of Peru and known as Alto Peru or, politically, the Audiencia of Charcas. The seat of government was Sucre. In 1776 this whole area was detached from the Viceroyalty of Peru and made a part of the newly created Viceroyalty of Buenos Aires. In 178o-82 occurred the uprising of the Indians, led by Tupac Amaru, in an attempt (one of many) to drive out or exterminate the Europeans. The movement was conducted with great cruelty on both sides and resulted in the complete defeat of the Indians and the execution of their leader. The Indians remained entirely neutral in the colonial revolt against Spain.
The inhabitants of Alto Peru joined with the other Spanish American colonies in the effort to secure political independence from Spain and to break the dominance of the European-born group. When the patriots of Buenos Aires had succeeded in liber ating the interior provinces of the Rio de la Plata, they turned their arms against their enemies in Upper Peru. From July 18°9 till Aug. 1825 almost uninterrupted warfare was waged in the Ar gentine provinces of Salta and Jujuy and around Titicaca. Upper Peru was invaded by the army of Buenos Aires, which, after twice defeating the Spanish troops, was able to celebrate the first anni versary of independence near Lake Titicaca, in May 181i. Soon, however, the patriot army, owing to the dissolute conduct and negligence of its leaders, was defeated, in July 1811, by the Spanish and driven back into Jujuy. Four years of warfare were ended in 1815 by the total rout of the patriots in a battle which took place between Potosi and Oruro. Then came a revolt of the Indians of the southern provinces of Peru, and the object being the independence of the whole country, it was joined by numerous creoles. This insurrection was speedily put down by the royalists. In 1816 the Spanish general La Serna, having been appointed com mander-in-chief of Upper Peru, attempted to invade the Argentine provinces in a march on Buenos Aires, but he was forced to retire by the irregular gaucho troops of Salta and Jujuy. For six years there was guerrilla warfare between the patriots of Upper Peru, who had taken refuge in the mountains, chiefly of the province of Yungas, and the royalist troops. In June 1823 the expedition of Gen. Santa Cruz, prepared with great zeal and activity at Lima, marched in two divisions upon Upper Peru, and in the following months of July and August the whole country between La Paz and Oruro was occupied by his forces; but later he permitted a retreat to be made before a smaller royalist army, and a severe storm con verted this movement into a precipitate flight, only a remnant of the expedition again reaching Lima. In 1824, after the victory of Ayacucho, Gen. Sucre, whose valour had contributed so much to it, marched with a part of the army into Upper Peru. On the news of the victory a universal rising of the patriots took place, and be fore Sucre had reached Oruro and Puno, in Feb. 1825, La Paz was already in their possession, and the royalist garrisons of several towns had gone over to their side. The Spanish general Olalieta, with a diminished army of 2,000 men, was confined to the province of Potosi, where he held out till March 1825, when he was mortally wounded in an action with some of his own revolted troops. Gen. Sucre was now invested with the supreme command in Upper Peru, until the requisite measures could be taken to establish in that country a regular and constitutional government. Fifty-four provincial deputies assembled at Chuquisaca, the capital, to decide, upon the invitation of the Government of the Argentine provinces, whether they would or would not remain separate from that coun try. In Aug. 1825 they decided that Upper Peru should in future constitute a distinct nation, for which they chose the name Bolivia and issued at the same time a formal declaration of inde pendence.
The first general assembly of deputies dissolved on Oct. 6, 1825, and a new congress was installed at Chuquisaca on May 25, 1826, to take into consideration the Constitution prepared by Bolivar for the new republic. A favourable committee report was made upon it and it was approved by the congress as the Constitution of the republic. Gen. Sucre was chosen president for life, accord ing to the Constitution, but only accepted the appointment for the space of two years, and on the express condition that 2,000 Colom bian troops should be permitted to remain with him. The inde pendence did not secure a peaceful future. Repeated risings occurred, till in the end of 1827 Gen. Sucre and his Colombian troops were driven from La Paz. A new congress was formed at Chuquisaca in April 1828, which modified the Constitution given by Bolivar, and chose Marshal Santa Cruz for president ; but only a year later a revolution, led by Gen. Blanco, for a time over turned the Government. Quiet being again restored in 1831, Santa Cruz promulgated the code of laws which bore his name, and brought financial affairs into some order ; he also concluded a treaty of commerce with Peru. In 1835, when a struggle for the chief power had made two factions in the neighbouring republic of Peru, Santa Cruz was induced to take a part in the contest ; he marched into that country, and after defeating Gen. Gamarra, the leader of one of the opposing parties, completed the pacification of Peru in the spring of 1836, named himself its protector, and had in view a confederation of the two countries. At this junc ture the Government of Chile interfered actively, and espousing the cause of Gamarra, sent troops into Peru. Three years of fight ing ensued till in a battle at Yungay in June 1839 Santa Cruz was defeated and exiled, Gamarra became president of Peru, and Gen. Velasco provisional chief in Bolivia. The Santa Cruz party, how ever, remained strong in Bolivia, and soon revolted successfully against the new head of the Government, ultimately installing Gen. Ballivian in the chief power. Taking advantage of the dis turbed condition of Bolivia, Gamarra attempted to annex the rich province of La Paz, invading it in Aug. 1841 and besieging the capital; but in a battle with Ballivian his army was totally routed, and Gamarra himself was killed. The Bolivian general was now in turn to invade Peru, when Chile again interfered to prevent him. Ballivian remained in the presidency till 1848, when he retired to Valparaiso, and in the end of that year Gen. Belth, after leading a successful military revolution, took the chief power, and during his presidency endeavoured to promote agriculture, industry and trade. Gen. Jorge Cordova succeeded him, but had not been long in office when a new revolt in Sept. 1857, originating with the gar rison of Oruro, compelled him to quit the country. His place was taken by Dr. Jose Maria Linares, the originator of the revolution, who, taking into his own hands all the powers of government, and acting with the greatest severity, caused himself to be proclaimed dictator in March 1858. Fresh disturbances led to the deposition of Linares in 1861, when Dr. Maria de Acha was chosen president. New causes of disagreement with Chile had arisen in the dis covery of rich beds of nitrate and guano on the coast-land of the desert of Atacama, which threatened warfare, and were only set at rest by the treaty of Aug. 1866, in which the 24th parallel of latitude was adopted as the boundary between the two republics. A new military revolution, led by Jose Maria Melgarejo, broke out in 1865, and in February of that year the troops of President Acha, were defeated in a battle near Potosi, when Melgarejo took the dominion of the country. After defeating two revolutions, in 1865 and 1866, the new president declared a political amnesty, and in 1869, after imposing a revised Constitution on the country, he became its dictator.
Recent History.—In Jan. 1871 President Melgarejo was in his turn expelled by a revolution headed by Col. Augustin Morales. The latter, becoming president, was himself murdered in Nov. 1872 and was succeeded by Col. Adolfo Ballivian, who died in 1874. Under this president Bolivia entered upon a secret agree ment with Peru which was destined to have grave consequences for both countries. By the treaty of 1866 between Bolivia and Chile, Bolivia, besides conceding the 24th parallel as the boundary of Chilean territory, agreed that Chile should have a half share of the customs and full facilities for trading on the coast that lay be tween the 23rd and 24th parallels, Chile at that time being largely interested in the trade of that region. It was also agreed that Chile should be allowed to mine and export the products of this district without tax or hindrance on the part of Bolivia. In 1870, in further consideration of the sum of $10,000, Bolivia granted to an Anglo-Chilean company the right of working certain nitrate de posits north of the 24th parallel. The great wealth which was passing into Chilean hands owing to these compacts created no little discontent in Bolivia, nor was Peru any better pleased with the hold that Chilean capital was establishing in the rich district of Tarapaca. On Feb. 6, 1873 Bolivia entered upon a secret agree ment with Peru, the ostensible object of which was the preserva tion of their territorial integrity and their mutual defence against exterior aggression. There can be no doubt that the aggression contemplated as possible by both countries was a further encroach ment on the part of Chile.
Upon the death of Adolfo Ballivian, immediately after the con clusion of this treaty with Peru, Dr. Tomas Frias became presi dent. He signed yet another treaty with Chile, by which the latter agreed to withdraw her claim to half the duties levied in Bolivian ports on condition that all Chilean industries established in Bolivian territory should be free from duty for 25 years. This treaty was never ratified, and four years later Gen. Hilarion Daza, who had succeeded Dr. Frias as president in 1876, demanded as the price of Bolivia's consent that a tax of ten cents per quintal should be paid on all nitrates exported from the country, further declaring that, unless this levy was paid, nitrates in the hands of the exporters would be seized by the Bolivian Government. As an answer to these demands, and in order to protect the property of Chilean subjects, the Chilean fleet was sent to blockade the ports of Antofagasta, Cobija and Tocopilla. On Feb. 14, 1879 the Chilean colonel Sotomayor occupied Antofagasta, and on March I, a fortnight later, the Bolivian Government declared war.
An offer on the part of Peru to act as mediator met with no favour from Chile. The existence of the secret treaty, well known to the Chilean Government, rendered the intervention of Peru more than questionable, and the law passed by the latter in which practically created a monopoly of the Tarapaca nitrate beds to the serious prejudice of Chilean enterprise, offered no guarantee of her good faith. Chile replied by curtly demanding the annulment of the secret treaty and an assurance of Peruvian neutrality. Both demands being refused, she declared war upon Peru. The superiority of the Chileans at sea, though checked for some time by the heroic gallantry of the Peruvians, soon enabled them to land a sufficient number of troops to meet the allied forces which had concentrated at Arica and other points in the south. The Bolivian ports were already in Chilean hands, and a sea attack upon Pisagua surprised and routed the troops under the Peruvian general Buendia and opened the way into the south ern territory of Peru. Gen. Daza, who should have co-operated with Buendia, turned back, on receiving news of the Peruvian de feat, and led the Bolivian troops to Tacna in a hasty and some what disorderly retreat. The fall of San Francisco followed, and Iquique, which was evacuated by the allies without a struggle, was occupied. Severe fighting took place before Tarapaca surren dered, but the end of 1879 saw the Chileans in complete possession of the province.
Meanwhile a double revolution took place in Peru and Bolivia. In the former country Gen. Prado was deposed and Col. Pierola proclaimed dictator. The Bolivians followed the example of their allies. The troops at Tacna, indignant at the inglorious part they had been condemned to play by the incompetence or cowardice of their president, deprived him of their command and elected Col. Camacho to lead them. At the same time a revolution in La Paz proclaimed Gen. Narciso Campero president, and he was elected to that post in the following June by the ordinary procedure of the Constitution. During 188o the war was chiefly maintained at sea between Chile and Peru, Bolivia taking little or no part in the struggle. In Jan. 1881 were fought the battles of Chorillos and Miraflores, attended by heavy slaughter and savage excesses on the part of the Chilean troops. They were followed almost imme diately by the surrender of Lima and Callao, which left the Chileans practically masters of Peru. In the interior, however, where the Peruvian admiral Montero had formed a provisional government, the war still lingered, and in Sept. 1882 a conference took place between the latter and President Campero, at which it was decided that they should hold out for better terms. But the Peruvians soon wearied of the useless struggle. On Oct. 20, 1883 they concluded a treaty of peace with Chile (the treaty of Ancon) ; the troops at Arequipa, under Admiral Montero, surrendered that town, and Montero himself, coldly received in Bolivia, whither he had fled for refuge, withdrew from the country to Europe. On Nov. 9, the Chilean army of occupation was concentrated at Are quipa, while what remained of the Bolivian army lay at Oruro. Negotiations were opened, and on Dec. 11, a truce was signed be tween Chile and Bolivia. By this treaty Bolivia agreed to the occupation by Chile of the whole of its sea-coast, including the port of Cobija.
On May 18, 1895, a treaty was signed at Santiago between Chile and Bolivia, "with a view to strengthening the bonds of friend ship which unite the two countries," and, "in accord with the higher necessity that the future development and commercial pros perity of Bolivia require her free access to the sea." By this treaty Chile declared that if, in consequence of the plebiscite (to take place under the treaty of Ancon with Peru), or by virtue of direct arrangement, she should "acquire dominion and permanent sov ereignty over the territories of Tacna and Arica, she undertakes to transfer them to Bolivia in the same form and to the same extent as she may acquire them"; the republic of Bolivia paying as an indemnity for that transfer $5,000,000 silver. If this cession should be effected, Chile should advance her own frontier north of Camerones to Vitor, from the sea up to the frontier which actually separates that district from Bolivia. Chile also pledged herself to use her utmost endeavour, either separately or jointly with Bolivia, to obtain possession of Tacna and Arica. If she failed, she bound herself to cede to Bolivia the roadstead (caleta) of Vitor, or another analogous one, and $5,000,000 silver. Supplementary pro tocols to this treaty stipulated that the port to be ceded must "fully satisfy the present and future requirements" of the com merce of Bolivia.
On May 23, 1895, further treaties of peace and commerce were signed with Chile. During those ten years of Bolivia's recovery from the war, the presidency was held by Dr. Pacheco, who suc ceeded Campero, and held office for the full term ; by Dr. Aniceto Arce, who held it until 1892, and by Dr. Mariano Bautista, his suc cessor. In 1896 Dr. Severo Alonso became president, and during his tenure of office diplomatic relations were resumed with Great Britain, Senor Aramayo being sent to London as minister pleni potentiary in July 1897. As an outcome of his mission an extradi tion treaty was concluded with Great Britain in March 1898.
In December an attempt was made to pass a law creating Sucre the perpetual capital. Until this time Sucre had taken its turn with La Paz, Cochabamba and Oruro. La Paz rose in open revolt. On Jan. 17 of the following year a battle was fought some 4o m. from La Paz between the insurgents and the Government forces, in which the latter were defeated with the loss of a colonel and forty-three men. Col. Pando, the insurgent leader, having gained a strong following, marched upon Oruro, and entered that town on April 11, 1899, after completely defeating the Government troops. Dr. Severo Alonso took refuge in Chilean territory ; and Col, Pando formed a provisional government. He had no difficulty in obtaining his election to the presidency without opposition. He entered upon office on Oct. 26, and proved himself strong and capable. He had to deal with two difficult settlements as to bound aries with Chile and Brazil, and to improve communication in order to revive mining and other industries. The dispute with Brazil over the rich Acre rubber-producing territory was accentu ated because the majority of those engaged in the rubber industry were Brazilians who resented the attempts of Bolivian officials to exercise authority in the district. This led to a declaration of inde pendence on the part of the State of Acre, and the despatch of a body of Bolivian troops in 1900 to restore order. There was no desire, however, on the part of President Pando to involve himself in hostilities with Brazil, and in a spirit of concession the dispute was settled amicably by diplomatic means, and a treaty signed in Nov. 5903. A new boundary line was drawn, and a portion of the Acre province ceded to Brazil in consideration of a cash indemnity of $io,000,000.
The long-standing dispute with Chile with regard to its occupa tion of the former Bolivian province of Antofagasta under the Pacto de Tregua (Pact of Truce) of April 4, 1884 was more diffi cult to arrange satisfactorily. In 1895 there had been some prospect of Chile's conceding an outlet on the sea in exchange for a recognition of the Chilean ownership of Tacna and Arica. The discovery, however, of secret negotiations between Bolivia and Argentina caused Chile to change its conciliatory attitude. Bolivia was in no position to venture upon hostilities or to compel the Chileans to make concessions, and the final settlement of the boundary dispute between Argentina and Chile deprived the Bolivians of the hope of obtaining the support of the Argentines. President Pando and his successor, Ismael Montes, who became president in 1904, saw that it was necessary to yield, and to make the best terms they could. A treaty was accordingly ratified in 1905, which was in many ways advantageous to Bolivia, though the republic was compelled definitely to cede to Chile the maritime provinces occupied by the latter power since the war, and to do without a seaport. The Government of Chile undertook to con struct a railway at its own cost from Arica to the Bolivian capital, La Paz, and to give the Bolivians free transit through Chilean ter ritory to certain towns on the coast. Chile further agreed to pay Bolivia a cash indemnity and lend certain pecuniary assistance to the construction of other necessary railways.
On Aug. 6, 1909 President Montes was succeeded by Senor Eliodoro Villazon. During their administrations the progress of Bolivia was marked and to the end of 1927 conditions in the re public were much more stable, both economically and politically, than ever before. Gen. Montes assumed office for a second term on Aug. 6, 1913, and remained President until 1917. The World War had a considerable influence upon the trade of Bolivia : imports decreased, while her exports, mainly minerals, increased very con siderably in value. The country proclaimed its neutrality in 1914, but departed from this attitude in consequence of Germany's sub marine policy. Diplomatic relations with Germany were severed on April 13, 1917, the reason for this action being that a German submarine had torpedoed in neutral waters a ship with the Bolivian minister to Berlin on board. The republic took no direct part in the War on the side of the Allies, but all her resources in metals were at their disposal.
Montes relinquished office on Aug. 6, 1917, and was succeeded by his former Minister of Finance, Senor Jose Gutierrez Guerra. Shortly after this the agitation for an outlet to the Pacific reached an acute stage. The policy of President Guerra was apparently aimed at a rapprochement with Chile over the long-standing griev ance resulting from the loss of Bolivia's coastal territories. Popular indignation against this attitude led to demonstrations : Guerra was forced to resign, and was escorted out of the country to Arica. Meanwhile the World War had ended. Bolivia was represented at the Versailles Conference, and signed the Peace Treaty of 1919 and became an original member of the League of Nations. Follow ing the deposition in July 1920 of President Guerra, the provi sional Government of Bolivia prosecuted the popular demand for a revision of the situation in regard to her lost territory (see .
The presidency of Dr. Bautista Saavedra (elected 192o) was productive of marked economic progress. Nevertheless some measure of political unrest was experienced both in 1924 and 1925. A revolutionary movement took place in July 1924 but was promptly suppressed by the Government. Ostensibly the object was to promote the secession of the province of Santa Cruz to the neighbouring republic of Brazil, but active opposition to the policy of the Saavedra Government was really the purpose of the disturbance. In Jan. 1925 Dr. Jose C. Villanueva, a physician who had been serving as minister of public instruction and agri culture, and Abdon Saavedra, a brother of the President, were nominated as Republican candidates for President and Vice president. The Liberal party nominated Dr. Salamanca for the presidency. After a vigorous electoral campaign the Republican candidates were elected on May 2 by an overwhelming majority.
The successful candidate for the presidency should have taken office on Aug. 6, but Congress refused to ratify his election on the ground that it was invalid because he had not resigned public office, as required by the Constitution, at least six months before election. Meanwhile Saavedra continued in office. On Sept. 1, Congress formally declared the election of May 2 null and void. President Saavedra transferred his office to Dr. Felipe Guzman, president of the Senate, to administer the Government provision ally, pending a new election. In December the new election was held and Dr. Hernando Siles, a Republican, was elected.
In 1927 Bolivia and Paraguay reopened negotiations in an at tempt to settle their boundary dispute in the Gran Chaco, but these ultimately broke down. Occasional armed clashes com mencing in 1928 developed by 1932 into a full fledged war, con tinuing through and part of 1935, generally favourably to Paraguay. A truce was finally arranged in June, 1935 but no definite peace had been concluded by the end of the year. (See CHACO and PARAGUAY.) Bolivia, like so many other of the Latin American republics, had its revolution in 193o when the Siles gov ernment was overthrown. In 1931 Dr. Salamanca was elected president by the combined Liberal and Republican votes. Extreme economic difficulties and military reverses weakened his popular support, and on November 28, 1934 he was turned out of office by the coup d'etat of Vice President Luis Tejada Sorzano.