BOOT AND SHOE INDUSTRY. In the boot and shoe industry the modern tendency is for large firms to expand, and for it to become increasingly difficult for those with small capitals to build up successful businesses. The limit to the growth of large manufacturing concerns does not appear to have been reached in any country, although the daily output has, in some cases, already attained extraordinarily high figures. In America, where the market created by a large population favours the de velopment of big businesses, an output of 130,00o pairs per day of all classes of boots and shoes has been achieved. This total has not been equalled in Europe by any individual firm, although one of the largest has reached a daily output of between 50,000 and 6o.000 pairs.
With the machinery available for the production of boots and shoes, the number of operations which need be performed by hand has become so small as to be almost negligible. There is still a limited demand for footwear made principally by hand, but the section of the industry known as the "bespoke trade" which, in the latter half of the i9th century, was flourishing, has been re duced to small proportions and may eventually cease to exist through lack of skilled handicraftsmen. Few are being trained to take the place of those now earning their living at the bespoke trade, and the apprenticeship system, which was formerly a rec ognized feature of the industry, has been practically discontinued. In the majority of shoe factories apprentices, when taken, are engaged to learn one or more of the important or "key" opera tions, but the manufacturer does not undertake to teach them how to make a boot from start to finish. Modern factory methods require the use of a different machine for each operation, and the sub-division of production makes it almost impossible to teach individual workers to handle all the machines, even if this were necessary. To ensure that the younger operatives shall have an opportunity to study all sections of the trade, technical schools have been established in all the larger centres of the trade in Britain, and in other important shoe centres in Europe.
Shoe Styles.—Since 190o there has been a large increase in the demand for light footwear. Although heavy boots are still produced in considerable quantities for artisan wearers, the tendency among all classes is to select the lightest boots and shoes consistent with reasonable wear. This change is attributed partly to a demand for smart and comfortable shoes, but it has been encouraged by the development of passenger transport services which have reduced the amount of walking indulged in by the public, particularly in wet weather and over rough surfaces. The increased use of mechanically propelled vehicles has not, however, caused any loss of trade to the shoe industry because the lighter goods are required in larger quantities per head of the population than the stronger footwear formerly worn. Women's shoe styles first showed a tendency to become lighter and more elaborate in design, and in 1911 footwear was being produced of a type which caused the trade to adopt the phrase "shoe millinery" to describe it. But the vogue of the women's light shoe did not develop fully until 1920 and was influenced chiefly by alterations in dress fashions. At first the continued changes in styles caused much inconvenience to the trade generally, retailers in particular suffering financial losses through stock becoming out-of-date be fore it could be sold. By the end of 1925, however, the fashion trade was working more smoothly as regards both production and distribution, and the industry as a whole benefited consider ably by the extra business it brought. Most of the established methods of making shoes proved adaptable for the production of women's light footwear, but at first the turnshoe system, formerly used principally for the manufacture of dancing pumps, slippers and similar indoor shoes, was most favoured. A method of construction, which provided for the attaching of the sole with a strong adhesive, instead of a sewn seam, was also success fully adopted by many manufacturers.
For the production of light footwear chrome tanned upper leathers, including box calf, willow calf and glace kid, proved most suitable. These leathers can be produced in a wide range of qualities, substances and colours and have a bright finish, besides being soft and pliable. They are used for both men's and women's footwear and have replaced oil-dressed leathers ex cept for the heaviest boots. Patent leather which had long been used for the uppers of shoes became even more popular when the fashion trade increased, and new types of washable leathers in calf and kid were also introduced. These had a bright waterproof finish somewhat similar to patent leather, but the finish, being transparent, allowed the grain and colour of the leather to appear. Many fancy leathers, not formerly considered suitable for foot wear, were also used for the higher-grade shoes, but owing to the limited supplies and consequent high cost they could not be employed freely for cheap goods. Leathers with unusual grains and colours were produced from a variety of reptile skins, in cluding Indian and Java lizards, pythons and other snakes with sufficiently large and well-marked skins. Ostrich skins, shark and various fish skins were also dressed for the shoe trade. The leathers with the most attractive grains were closely imitated by printing and embossing calf and other skins, and these imitations were found useful for the manufacture of the cheaper fancy shoes. For boot soles leather similar to that used for this purpose for many centuries is still the most popular, but a few innovations have been made, notably the waterproof sole leathers which are produced by various processes, the chief among which is a special method of chrome tanning. The use of rubber in various forms for soles has increased, and for sports shoes natural crepe rubber and vulcanized rubber soles are commonly used. A number of compounds made of rubber mixed with fibrous material such as cotton, or a suitable mineral filler, have been produced for use as boot soles and have met with a moderate sale. Most of the compounds are waterproof and wear as well as, if not better than, medium quality leather. They have been used chiefly for the soles of medium to heavy-weight boots and can be sold at prices which enable the producers to compete with tanners of sole leather suitable for this class of footwear.
Production.—The census of production taken in Great Britain in 1924 showed that the output of the British shoe industry in that year was 117,456,00o pairs, valued at 47,427,000. In 1907 when the preceding official census was taken the output was 97,440,00o pairs, valued at These figures included boots and shoes made wholly or mainly of leather, footwear with canvas uppers, slippers of all kinds and boots and shoes made of all other materials except rubber. The number of workers engaged in the industry was 147,3oo in 1924 and 124,800 in 1907. A large proportion of the output was sold in the home market, the ex ports to all countries being only 17.7% of the men's footwear and 12.1% of the women's and children's goods made chiefly of leather. In the case of boots and shoes made of materials other than leather (principally slippers of felt and similar fabrics) the exports were less than 4% of the number made.
The shoe industry of the United States has the largest output of any country in the world. Statistics compiled in 1927 from reports supplied by manufacturers to the Government's Depart ment of Commerce showed that the total production of all classes of boots and shoes, except those of rubber, was 343,6o5,9o5 pairs. The number of workers engaged to make this quantity was more than 210,000, and they were employed in 1,46o factories. The value of the goods they produced was more than $93o,000,000 and they received as wages $225,788,000. Of the total produced 8,000,000 pairs were exported. A little over 3,000,000 pairs were imported.
A segregation of the 343,605,905 pairs of shoes produced in the United States in 1927 from January to December inclusive, shows the proportion (in pairs) of various types as follows: Men's 95, 328,o98; women's 116,258,866; boys' and youths' 24,229,296; girls' and children's 39,649,961; infants' 24,541,551; total of leather shoes, 3oo,007,772; athletic and sporting, 2,477,519; can vas, satin and fabric, 3,3o1,433 ; slippers, 29,158,122; all others, 8,661 ,o6o.
The comparatively small export trade transacted by the larger shoe producing countries is due in some degree to the perfection of modern machinery. Where there is a market for shoes, fac tories are usually to be found which can supply a good proportion of the demand. In the British dominions, including Canada, Aus tralia and South Africa, shoe manufacturing has been introduced and under the protection of import tariffs has been carried on successfully during the period required to get the industry firmly established. The machinery available allows rapid training of unskilled labour to perform many operations, and competent workers can be obtained from other countries to carry out the processes for which trained operatives are essential. Under expert management these factories have been able from their commence ment to produce marketable goods in sufficient quantities to obviate the necessity of importing all the boots and shoes required, and the output has improved in quality in proportion to the length of time that the industry has been carried on. (See also BOOT AND SHOE MACHINERY.) See E. J. C. Swaysland, American Methods of Boot and Shoe Manufacture (Northampton, 1906) ; F. Plucknett, Boot and Shoe Manufacture (1916) ; T. Wright, The Romance of the Shoe (1922).