BOTANIC GARDEN. The original conception of a botanic garden was that literally implied by the name, that is, a garden, with the plants arranged according to some system of botanical classification. A botanic garden thus differed from a park, where the plants are usually arranged solely with reference to securing a beautiful landscape effect. The primary purpose of a park, more over, is recreation, while that of a botanic garden has always been science and education. In time, however, these institutions de veloped along broader and more inclusive lines, and a botanic garden is properly defined as a scientific and educational institu tion whose purpose is the advancement and diffusion of a knowl edge and love of plants.
A collection of living plants, out of doors or under glass, must always remain a major feature of botanic gardens, but the modern institutions possess, in addition, a herbarium, a library, experi mental grounds for plant breeding and other investigations, labora tories, classrooms, lecture halls and, in some cases, botanical museums, together with scientific, educational and administrative staffs. Different institutions place the emphasis on different aspects of the work, and this may be determined by climat,e, area, tradition, resources or ideals.
Botanic gardens have gradually developed by a process of evo lution from such gardens as the early olive orchards and the temple gardens, like that, for example, at Karnak, Egypt—one of the earliest of which there is authentic record, dating from the reign of Thotmes III., about 1500 B.C. It seems probable that the very earliest gardens were utilitarian in purpose—for the growing of food and fiber plants and fruit trees. Temple grounds. however, were early planted, and to this practice we are probably indebted for the preservation, until now, of the "maidenhair tree," Ginkgo biloba. (See GINKGO.) One of the first gardens, developed for the express purpose of facilitating the study of plants was that of Aristotle, an ardent student of plants, who wrote books on botany, now lost. This garden was in charge of his pupil, Theo phrastus, who fell heir to it on the death of the master. It would thus appear that, in modern terminology, the first patron of botany of whom we have record was Aristotle (c. 35o B.c.), and the first "director" of a botanic garden, Theophrastus, who also wrote books on botany.
The history of botanic gardens during the period between those of antiquity and the I 5th or i6th century appears never to have been traced in detail. During the i6th and I 7th centuries the herbalists (predecessors of the modern botanists) began to culti vate private gardens for the purpose of botanical study. Perhaps the best known of these is the garden of John Gerard, in Holland. (These private gardens were the forerunners of the modern botanic gardens.) The botanic garden idea spread rapidly in coun tries of older civilization during the 18th and 19th centuries. There were also vigorous attempts to establish botanic gardens in the United States, as Bartram's garden near Philadelphia, Penn. (1728), Evan's garden, also near Philadelphia (1828, an offshoot from Bartram's garden) and the Elgin Botanic garden, New York city (18o 1) . Notwithstanding the phenomenal growth of the United States, the botanic garden idea was slow to take root, and it was nearly 6o years from the Elgin garden to the establishment of Shaw's garden (now the Missouri botanical garden), at St. Louis, Mo., in 1859. This garden appears to be the oldest existing botanic garden in America organized as an independent insti tution.
Modern botanic gardens in all countries are organized along closely similar lines. There is a director with a scientific (and sometimes an educational) staff, a head gardener, a number of gardeners and a force of labourers for the maintenance of walks, driveways and lawns. In the case of governmental gardens (e.g., Kew in London, Edinburgh in Scotland, Glasnevin at Dublin, Ire land, Berlin in Germany, Buitenzorg in Java, Singapore, Port-of Spain in Trinidad, Hope and Castleton gardens in Jamaica, and others) the director reports to a governmental minister or bureau, and the financial support comes wholly or chiefly from govern mental appropriations. In the case of independent institutions (e.g., Missouri botanical garden at St. Louis, the new California botanic garden at Loss Angeles, the Boyce Thompson south western arboretum at Superior, Ariz. and others) there is a board of trustees who administer the permanent funds and other in come. Gardens that form integral parts of universities or other institutions (e.g., Cambridge in England, Harvard at Cambridge, Mass., the Hortus Botanicus at Amsterdam, and Brooklyn at Brooklyn, N.Y.) are administered by the trustees of the given institution. A fourth group comprises those gardens which are supported in part by municipal or other governmental appropria tions and in part by private funds administered by a board of trustees, as is the case, for example, with the New York botanical garden and the Brooklyn botanic garden. Various botanic gar dens in Europe derive their support wholly or chiefly from the city in which they are located, as, for example, Bath (England), Bern (Switzerland), Marseilles (France) and Valencia (Spain).
Among botanic gardens that form an integral part of the botanical departments of colleges and other schools or are closely affiliated with them may be mentioned the following : Aberdeen, Dundee and St. Andrews universities in Scotland, Birmingham, Cambridge and Oxford universities, and the Royal Agricultural college at Cirencester (Gloucester) in England; Trinity college, Dublin, in Ireland; those at the universities of Budapest (Hun gary), Czernowitz and Cluj (Rumania), Krakow and Lwow (Poland), Praha (Czechoslovakia), Vienna (Austria) ; at Ghent and Liege in Belgium; at Copenhagen in Denmark; at the Catho lic university in Lille, France; at the medical college and the veterinary college in Lyons, France; at Strasbourg (France) ; at Madrid (Spain) ; at the universities of Bonn, Breslau, Gottingen, Halle, Munich and WUrzburg in Germany; at Athens (Greece), Groningen, Leiden and Utrecht (Holland) ; Genoa and Modena (Italy) ; Kiev, Odessa and Leningrad (Russia) ; Basel and the Jardins Alpins de l'Universite' de Grenoble (Switzerland) ; Nikko and Tokyo (Japan) ; the Botaniska Tradgard of the University of Helsingfors (Finland) ; and, in the United States, those of the universities of California (Berkeley), Harvard (Cambridge, Mass.), Smith college (Northampton, Mass.) Mt. Holyoke college (South Hadley, Mass.), Michigan Agricultural college (East Lan sing), the University of Michigan (Ann Arbor), the University of Minnesota (Minneapolis), the University of Pennsylvania (Philadelphia) and the Johns Hopkins university (Baltimore). Also, the University of British Columbia (Vancouver). Harvard university maintains a botanical garden in Cuba as well as in Cambridge, Mass.
There are approximately 325 botanic gardens outside of the United States. Among the more notable of these are the follow ing, which are mentioned in the order of age, the year given being the date of their foundation.
Old World Gardens.—I. Pisa, Italy (1543), founded by order of the Grand Duke Cosimo de' Medici I. This is one of the earliest gardens devoted to the public study of botany, and be came famous under its second director, Andrea Caesalpini. His work, De plantis libris XVI. (1583) marks the beginning of mod ern systematic botany, and influenced botanical science for more than a hundred years.
3. Chelsea Physic Garden, London (1673), was established on the bank of the Thames by the Society of Apothecaries, for the express purpose of advancing the teaching of botany, and of pro viding study material for research and teaching. In the earlier years the garden grew medicinal plants in sufficient amount to supply the members of the society with crude drugs in commercial quantities. The original plot of 4 ac. was enlarged in 1722 by additional ground deeded as a gift by Sir Hans Sloane with the provision that the growth of drug plants for commerce should cease, and the garden thenceforth be devoted exclusively to scien tific and educational work. Its influence along these lines can scarcely be overestimated. Among its famous directors were Philip Miller, author of the classic Dictionary of Gardening, and John Lindley (appointed in 1835), author of Flora Medica and other important botanical works. Many important publications grew out of the work of the garden, including Curtis's Botanical Magazine and Flora Londonensis, Lindley and Moore's Treasury of Botany, and others. The private library of Charles Darwin is housed in the laboratory building.
4. Der Staatliche Botanische Garten and Museum, Berlin Dahlem, Germany (1679), was established in Schoneberg, near Berlin, as an exhibition or model garden (Mustergarten). Here it remained for over 200 years. A new site was chosen at Dahlem where in 1897-1907 the present garden was laid out under the direction of Dr. A. Engler, who was director from 1889 to 1921. The area is approximately zoo acres. It is primarily a research institute for botanical science and instruction of Berlin university. The plantations comprise five main sections: (I) Plant Geog raphy; (2) Morphology--OecologY; (3) The Arboretum; (4) Systematic Botany; (5) Economic Plants. The Conservatories contain a remarkable collection of tender and tropical plants. The Botanical Museum comprises the Herbarium and the public exhibits.
Among other important European botanic gardens may be men tioned those at Amsterdam where deVries (q.v.), carried on his investigations leading to the formulation of the epoch-making mutation theory, Budapest (1771), Cambridge (1762), Chris tiania (1815), Coimbra (Portugal, 1773), Copenhagen (1600), Genoa, Hanbury (La Mortola, Ventimiglia, Italy, 1867), Helsing fors (1828), Leiden (1587) Leningrad (1843), Madrid Rome (1884) , Upsala (1787), Ventimiglia (Italy, 1867).
In Asia and the Pacific islands: Tokyo (1638) ; Calcutta Sibour, (1787) ; Buitenzorg, Java (1817) ; Hongkong, Paradeniya, Ceylon (1822) ; Melbourne, Australia (184 2) and Hobart, Tasmania (1844) . In Africa: Durban (1849) and Kirstenbosch, Cape Town (1913) . In South America: Rio de Janeiro (18o8) and Buenos Aires (1892).
The garden co-operates closely with the Henry Shaw School of Botany, at Washington university, St. Louis, and the director of the garden is professor in this school. The founder's will provides that there must be preached annually a sermon on the power, wisdom and goodness of God as shown in plant life. During the administration (1889-1912) of the first director, Dr. William Trelease (q.v.), the Annual Reports, enriched with scientific con tributions, became known throughout the scientific world. Under his successor Dr. George T. Moore (1912– ), the Annals were initiated, the scientific and educational work expanded, and a new tract of land (the Gray summit extension, of over 1,500 ac.) out side the smoke zone of the city was secured and developed for the growing of conifers and other plants. In 1926 a tropical sta tion was established in the Panama Canal Zone where orchids and other tropical plants will be grown.
Arnold arboretum (Forest Hill, Boston, Mass.; 1872), the living tree museum of Harvard university. The principal collection of trees and shrubs was planted in 1886. The area of approximately 25o ac. includes meadow, hill and valley, and the permanent (en dowment) funds are about $2,000,000. There is a library of about 40,000 vol. and 1 o,000 pamphlets, and a herbarium of the woody plants of the world of about 300,00o sheets. No under graduate instruction is given, but special research students are received. Publications : Journal of the Arnold Arboretum, Plantae ll'ilsonianae, Bulletin of Popular Information, The Brad ley Bibliography (a 5 vol. guide to the literature of the woody plants of the world before the beginning of the 2oth century), and other works. Soon after the death of the first director, Prof. Charles Sprague Sargent (q.v.), who served from 1872 to 1927, the office of director was abolished and Prof. Oakes Ames was made supervisor, and Mr. E. H. Wilson, keeper.
New York Botanical Garden (Bronx Park, New York city; 1894). This comprises an area of approximately 400 ac.; its per manent funds exceed $2,400,000. There are two large ranges of conservatories, in one of which is a lecture hall. The museum building houses the public museum exhibits, the herbarium of some 2,000,000 specimens, the library of over 37,00o volumes, together with research laboratories and offices of administration. Courses of free public lectures are given throughout the year, and classes from the public schools visit the garden at frequent inter vals for special instruction. The Garden has, from the beginning, carried on systematic exploration of the West Indies, as well as of continental North America. Its publications include the Journal (monthly), Mycologia (bi-monthly), Bulletin (irregular, and con taining the annual reports), North American Flora (being pub lished in fascicles), Memoirs (irregular), and Contributions. The Garden is supported by both municipal and private funds, and has, from the beginning until now (1928) been developed under the directorship of Dr. N. L. Britton (q.v.). There is a close affiliation with Columbia University.
Brooklyn Botanic Garden (Brooklyn, N. Y., 1910). This in cludes an area about 5o acres ; its work includes anything scientific or educational based upon plant life. Many popular courses are given for the general public both children and adults. Its educational program is probably more extensive than that of any other botanic garden. There is a children's garden and children's green-house and building. Boys and girls frequently take consecutive voluntary instruction for periods of five to ten years, finally entering upon a life work of botany, horticulture, or some other aspect of plant science or industry. The research work is mainly with the experimental aspects of botany (pathol ogy, genetics, ecology, physiology), though including some sys tematic work. Graduate work done at the Garden is credited toward advanced degrees by New York university. The Garden co-operates extensively with public and private schools. The Li brary, containing over 12,000 volumes and over 10,000 pam phlets, is open free daily to the public. The herbarium contains : flowering plants, 84,000 specimens; Fungi, 72,000; Bryophytes, II,0o0; Algae, 3,000. The conservatories contain tender and tropical economic and other plants. The Garden is supported in part by annual appropriations by the city of New York and in greater part by private funds. It was developed under the supervision of the first director, Dr. C. Stuart Gager (q.v.). Its publications include American Journal of Botany (monthly), Ecology (quarterly), Genetics (bi-monthly), Memoirs, Contribu tions, Leaflets, and Record (one number of which comprises the Annual Report).
United States Botanical Garden (Washington, D.C., 1850). This originally occupied about 13 acres near the Capitol grounds. The National Congress, in 1927, authorized the Secretary of Agriculture to establish a National Arboretum on a tract of about 400 acres lying upon the Anacostia river about four miles north east of the centre of Washington. The Act provides that, "The arboretum shall be administered by the Secretary of Agriculture, separately from the agricultural, horticultural and forestry sta tions of the Department of Agriculture, but it shall be so cor related with them as to bring about the most effective utilization of its facilities and discoveries." The plans include a relocation of the old botanic garden.
Boyce-Thompson Institute for Plant Research, Inc. (Yonkers N.Y., 1921). This was established by a gift of William Boyce Thompson of approximately $6,000,000, the larger part of which has been set aside as a permanent endowment fund. The institute was incorporated and the laboratories were opened in 1924. The stated purpose is the carrying out of every phase of research on plant life and the dissemination of information relative thereto. In 1928 a tract of about 325 acres on the eastern edge of Yonkers, was secured for the development of an arboretum, where it is planned to grow every hardy species of woody plant. This collec tion is primarily to serve as a basis for the study of methods of propagation, pathology, and disease control. Planting was begun in the spring of 1929.
Among other American botanic gardens there is space only to mention The Letchworth Park Arboretum (extending for some distance northward of Portage, N.Y., along both banks of the Genesee river) ; the Morton Arboretum (Lisle, Ill.), and the botanic gardens at various colleges and universities, among which may be mentioned: Harvard (Cambridge), Marsh (at Yale Uni versity, New Haven, Conn.), University of Pennsylvania, Smith (at Northampton, Mass.) ; Mt. Holyoke (at South Hadley, Mass.) ; Michigan (at Ann Arbor, Mich.) ; North Carolina (at Chapel Hill), Havana (Cuba), and Bermuda (Hamilton, Ber muda) . (See ARBORETUM.)