BOWLS, one of the oldest of outdoor pastimes. It has been traced certainly to the 13th, and conjecturally to the 12th, century. William Fitzstephen (d. about 119o), in his biography of Thomas Becket, gives a graphic sketch of the London of his day and, writ ing of the summer amusements of the young men, says that on holidays they were "exercised in Leaping, Shooting, Wrestling, Casting of Stones (in jactu lapidum), and Throwing of Javelins fitted with Loops for the Purpose, which they strive to fling before the Mark; they also use Bucklers, like fighting Men." It is sometimes supposed that by jactus lapidum Fitzstephen meant the game of bowls ; but though it is possible that round stones may sometimes have been employed in an early variety of the game—and there is a record of iron bowls being used, though at a much later date, on festive occasions at Nairn—nevertheless the inference seems unwarranted. The jactus lapidum of which he speaks was probably more akin to the modern "putting the weight," once even called "putting the stone." A 13th Century Game.—It is beyond dispute, however, that the game, at any rate in a rudimentary form, was played in the 13th century. A ms. of that period in the royal library, Windsor (No. 20, E iv.), contains a drawing representing two players aiming at a small cone instead of an earthenware ball or jack. Another ms. of the same century has a picture—crude, but spirited —which brings into closer touch the existing game. Three figures are introduced and a jack. The first player's bowl has come to rest just in front of the jack; the second has delivered his bowl and is following after it with one of those eccentric contortions still not unusual on modern greens, the first player meanwhile making a repressive gesture with his hand, as if to urge the bowl to stop short of his own ; the third player is depicted as in the act of delivering his bowl.
As the game grew in popularity it came under the ban of king and parliament, both fearing it might jeopardize the practice of archery, then so important in battle ; and statutes forbidding it and other sports were enacted in the reigns of Edward III., Richard II., and other monarchs. Even when, on the invention of gunpowder and firearms, the bow had fallen into disuse as a weapon of war, the prohibition was continued. The discredit attaching to bowling alleys, first established in London in probably encouraged subsequent repressive legislation, for many of the alleys were connected with taverns frequented by the dis solute and gamesters.
The word "bowls" occurs for the first time in the statute of 1511 in which Henry VIII. confirmed previous enactments against unlawful games. By a further act of '54i—which was not re pealed until 1845—artificers, labourers, apprentices, servants and the like were forbidden to play bowls at any time save Christmas, and then only in their master's house and presence. It was further enjoined that any one playing bowls outside of his own garden or orchard was liable to a penalty of 6s. 8d., while those possessed of lands of the yearly value of Iioo might obtain licences to play on their own private greens. But though the statute absolutely prohibited bowling alleys, Henry VIII. had them constructed for his own pleasure at Whitehall Palace and would bet upon his skill when he played. In Mary's reign the licences were withdrawn, the queen or her advisers deeming the game an excuse for "unlawful assemblies, conventicles, seditions, and conspir• acies." Introduction of Bias.—Biased bowls were introduced in the 16th century. "A little altering of the one side," says Robert Recorde, the mathematician, in his Castle of Knowledge (1556), "maketh the bowl to run biasse waies." And Shakespeare (Rick ard II., act. iii. sc. 4) causes the queen to remonstrate, in reply to her lady's suggestion of a game at bowls to relieve her ennui, " 'Twill make me think the world is full of rubs, and that my fortune runs against the bias." This passage is interesting also as showing that women were accustomed to play the game in those days. It is pleasant to think that there is foundation for the famil iar story of Sir Francis Drake playing bowls on Plymouth Hoe as the Armada was beating up Channel, and finishing his game before tackling the Spaniards. Bowls, at that date, was looked upon as a legitimate amusement for Sundays,—as, indeed, were many other sports. When John Knox visited Calvin at Geneva one Sunday, it is said that he discovered him engaged in a game; and John Aylmer (1521-94), though bishop of London, enjoyed a game on a Sunday afternoon, but used such language "as justly exposed his character to reproach." The pastime found favour with the Stuarts. In the Book of Sports (1618), James I. recom mended a moderate indulgence to his son, Prince Henry, and Charles I. was an enthusiastic bowler, unfortunately encouraging, by example, wagering and playing for high stakes, habits that ultimately brought the green into as general disrepute as the alley. It is recorded that the king occasionally visited Richard Shute, a Turkey merchant who owned a beautiful green at Barking Hall, and that after one bout his losses were Ii,000. He was permitted to play his favourite game to beguile the tedium of his captivity. The signboard of a wayside inn near Goring Heath in Oxford shire long bore a portrait of the king with couplets reciting how his majesty "drank from the bowl, and bowl'd for what he drank." During his stay at the Northamptonshire village of Holdenby or Holmby—where Sir Thomas Herbert complains the green was not well kept—Charles frequently rode over to Lord Vaux's place at Harrowden, or to Lord Spencer's at Althorp, for a game, and, according to one account, was actually playing on the latter green when Cornet Joyce came to Holmby to remove him to other quarters. During this period gambling had become a mania. John Aubrey, the antiquary, chronicles that the sisters of Sir John Suckling, the courtier-poet, once went to the bowling-green in Piccadilly, crying "for fear he should lose all their portions." If the Puritans regarded bowls with no friendly eye, as Lord Macaulay asserts, one can hardly wonder at it. But even the Puritans could not suppress betting. So eminently respectable a person as John Evelyn thought no harm in bowling for stakes, and once played at The Durdans, near Epsom, for I 1 o, winning match and money, as he triumphantly notes in his Diary for Aug. 14, 1658. Samuel Pepys repeatedly mentions finding great people "at bowles." After a long interval salvation came from Scotland. There along with its winter analogue of curling, bowls may now be considered, much more than golf, a national game. Yet it was not until well into the 19th century that the pastime acquired popularity in that country. It had been known in Scotland since the close of the 16th century (the Glasgow kirk session fulminated an edict against Sunday bowls in 1S95), but greens were few and far between. There is record of a club in Haddington in 1709, of Tom Bicket's green in Kilmarnock in 174o, of greens in Candle riggs and Gallowgate, Glasgow and of one in Lanark in 175o, of greens in the grounds of Heriot's hospital, Edinburgh, prior to 1768, and of one in Peebles in 1775. These are, of course, mere infants compared with the Southampton Town Bowling Club, founded in 1299—which still uses the green on which it has played for centuries and continues the quaint custom of describ ing certain successful players as "sir"—and are younger even than the Newcastle-on-Tyne club established in 1657.
These earlier clubs, however, did little or nothing towards organ izing the game. In 1848 and 1849, when many clubs had come into existence in the west and south of Scotland (the Wellcroft dating from 1835, is the oldest club in Glasgow), meetings were held in Glasgow for the purpose of promoting a national associa tion. This was regarded by many as impracticable, but a decision of final importance was reached when a consultative committee was appointed to draft a uniform code of laws to govern the game. This body delegated its functions to its secretary, W. W. Mitchell (1803-1884), who prepared a code that was immediately adopted in Scotland as the standard laws. It was in this sense that Scottish bowlers saved the game. They were, besides, pioneers in laying down level greens of superlative excellence. Not satisfied with seed-sown grass or meadow turf, they experimented with sea washed turf and found it answered well. The 13th earl of Eglinton also set an example of active interest which many magnates emulated. Himself a keen bowler, he offered for competition, in 18J4, a silver bowl and, in 1857, a gold bowl and the Eglinton Cup, all to be played for annually. These trophies excited healthy rivalry in Ayrshire and Lanarkshire, and the enthusiasm as well as the skill with which the game was conducted in Scotland at length proved contagious. Clubs in England began to consider the question of legislation and to improve their greens. Moreover, Scottish emigrants introduced the game wherever they went, and colonists in Australia and New Zealand established many clubs which, in the main, adopted Mitchell's laws; while clubs were also started in Canada and in the United States, in South Africa, India (Calcutta, Karachi), Japan (Kobe, Yokohama, Kumamoto) and Hong-Kong. In Ireland the game took root very gradually, but in Ulster, owing doubtless to constant intercourse with Scot land, such clubs as have been founded are strong in numbers and play.
Perhaps the most interesting proof that bowls is a true V olks spiel is to be found in the fact that it has become municipalized. In Edinburgh, Glasgow, and elsewhere in Scotland, and in London, Birmingham, Liverpool, Manchester, Newcastle and other English towns, the corporations have laid down greens in public parks and open spaces. In Scotland the public greens are self-supporting, from a charge, which includes the use of bowls, of a few pence per hour for each player; in London the upkeep of the greens falls on the rates. Most of them are run at a loss. The formation of so many private clubs in the metropolis has led to a rapid de velopment of the game. Many of these private organizations possess two greens.
There are two kinds of bowling green, the level and the crown. The crown has a fall which may amount to as much as i8in. all round from the centre to the sides. This type of green is con fined almost wholly to certain of the northern and midland counties of England. But although the crown-green game is of a sporting character, it necessitates the use of bowls of narrow bias and affords but limited scope for the display of skill at building up "ends." It is the game on the perfectly level green which calls for science and strategy in the matter of bowl placement. Subject to the rule as to the shortest distance to which the jack must be thrown (25Yd), there is no prescribed size for the lawn; but 4 2yd. square forms an ideal green. The Queen's park and Tit wood clubs in Glasgow have each three greens, and as they can quite comfortably play six rinks on each, it is not uncommon to see 144 bowlers playing their game simultaneously. An under sized lawn is really a poor green, because it involves playing from corner to corner instead of up and down—the orthodox direction. For the scientific construction of a green, the whole ground must be excavated, to a depth of i8in. or so, and thoroughly drained, and layers of different materials (gravel, cinders, moulds, silver sand) laid down before the final covering of turf, 24- or Sin. thick. Sea-washed turf is the best. It wears longest and keeps its "spring" to the last. Surrounding the green is a space called a ditch, which is nearly but not quite on a level with the green and slopes gently away from it. Beyond the ditch are banks generally laid with turf. A green is divided into spaces usually from 18 to 21 ft. in width, commonly called "rinks"—a word which also desig nates each set of players—and these are numbered in sequence on a plate fixed in the bank at each end opposite the centre of the space. In match play each "rink" is marked off from its neighbour by thin thread securely fastened flush with the turf.
In theory the game of bowls is very simple, the aim of the player being to roll his bowl so as to cause it to rest nearer to the jack than his opponent's, or to protect a well-placed bowl, or to dislodge a better bowl than his own. But in practice there is every opportunity for skill. On all good greens the game is played in rinks of four a side, there being, however, on the part of many English clubs still an adherence to the old-fashioned method of two and three men a side games. The four players in a rink are known as the leader, second player, third player and skip, and their positions, at least in matches, are unchangeable. The leader has to place the mat and to throw the jack, and is always chosen to fill that place because of his skill in drawing close up to the jack. It is, therefore, his business to "be up." There is no excuse for short play on his part, and his bowls would be better off the green than obstructing the path of subsequent bowls. So he will endeavour to be "on the jack," the ideal position being a bowl at rest immediately in front of or behind it. The skip plays last and directs his men from the end that is being played to. The second man, also, must be able to draw accurately. Most frequently he will be required either to protect a good bowl or to rectify a pos sible error of the leader. His official duty is to mark the game on the scoring card. The third player, who does any measuring that may be necessary to determine which bowl or bowls may be near est the jack, holds almost as responsible a position as the captain, whose place, in fact, he takes whenever the skip is temporarily absent. The duties of the skip will already be understood by inference. It may be that he has to draw a shot with the utmost nicety to save the end, or even the match, or to lay a cunningly contrived block, or to "fire"—that is, to deliver his bowl almost dead straight at the object, with enough force to kill the bias for the moment. The score having been counted, the leader then places the mat, usually at the place where the jack lay at the con clusion of the head, and throws the jack in the opposite direction for a fresh end. On small greens play, for obvious reasons, gen erally takes place from each ditch. The players play in couples— the first on both sides, then the second, and so on. The leader having played his first bowl, the opposing leader will play his first and so on.
elasticity, or cracks, when pulled, so another stick is bound on to strengthen it. Thus hardwood and bamboo are lashed together in Melanesia, or glued together in Japan ; layers of sinew strength en North American bows ; the marsh dwellers of the Central African lakes fit a piece of tough wood into the hollow of a split bamboo; and yew, fustic, hickory and other woods are glued to gether to make the backed bow of modern archers. Composite (bi-partite or tripartite) bows are made of two or more materials, often animal products, usually attached transversely. These may be two-piece bows, often a pair of horns or antlers fastened to gether at the grip (fig. 2) or the more familiar three-piece, with its "Cupid's bow" curve (fig. 3). This is the characteristic Asiatic shape, horn being more easily obtained than good timber, and it seldom occurs beyond the range of Asiatic influence. Both types are made by the Eskimo, who depend on such materials as drift wood, whalebone or reindeer antler. A pair of antlers rivetted to gether makes a two-piece bow, or three pieces of drift wood a three-piece bow (fig. 4), but in either case a strong backing of sinew is added to give both strength and elasticity. The true Tartar bow often has a core of wood, with layers of horn and sinew on either side, completely concealed under a covering of bark and lacquer. It is usually reflex, being drawn contrary to the curve, and in some three-piece bows the joints almost act as hinges (fig. 3) .
The bowstring varies in material, and in the way in which it is fastened to the bow. Dwellers in warm, well-forested parts use a strip of rattan or bamboo, or a worked string of some vegetable fibre, but animal sinew or a strip of hide is widespread, especially with the Asiatic bow. Rattan or bamboo strings, being intrac table, are often attached indirectly to the stave by a separate flex ible loop, but with other bowstrings direct attachment is more common, and the string is threaded through a hole in the bow, secured by a firm lashing, or looped over the ends and stopped from slipping by a shoulder, notch or other projection.
Arrows are influenced by bows and vice versa. Where effective metal-headed or poisoned arrows are used the bows are often weak; where the arrows are ineffective the bow must be strength ened. An arrow may be made all in one piece, of a stick with one end hardened in the fire, or may be of two pieces, a shaft of reed, cane or light wood, and a heavier sharpened foreshaft; more com monly a separate head of stone, bone, shell, metal, etc. (with or without barbs) is fixed to the shaft or foreshaft. The head may be tanged or socketed, and fixed by lashings or cementing or both; it is often unfixed, so that it rankles in the wound. Feathers or bits of leaf, leather or fur are added to light arrows to steady the flight, but arrows with heavy f oreshaf is are usually unfeathered. When the bowstring is a flat strip of rattan or bamboo, a nock in the butt of the arrow is rare, but in other cases the arrow is usually grooved to fit on to the string, or a separate nock is made and fitted on (fig. 8).
Poisoning of arrows with vegetable and animal poisons is com mon in Africa, South America and parts of Asia, and has been reported from other regions. The "poisoned arrows" of Melanesia are often dipped in putrid matter, but rely less on their toxic qualities than on magic and the evil consequence of the breaking off of the fine bone point in the wound. Spells and incantations play a large part in the preparation of all arrow poisons, and by suggestion add much to their deadliness.
The arrow may be shot off in various ways (figs. 6, 7, 9, Io). The easiest release is by holding the butt end of the arrow between the index finger and thumb, and pulling the bowstring out with it. The arrows need no nock, though knobs, lashing or grooves are often added at the butt end to help the grip. In the secondary release the arrow is still held by the index finger and thumb, but the other fingers help in pulling the string. In the Mediterranean release the thumb takes no part, the nocked arrow is fitted on to the string, which is drawn out by the fingers. This is the loose of modern archers, as of some of the most primitive, the Vedda and the Eskimo, and it occurs in a modified form in the Andaman islands. The Mongolian release is exactly opposite. Here the fingers are idle (save for steadying the arrow) and the thumb, protected by a ring or glove, does the work. This is universal in Asia and parts of Africa, and some of the oriental drawing-rings of ivory, jade and precious stones are of great beauty. A very strong bow is sometimes drawn with the feet. The archer sits, and pushing the bow with his feet, draws the string towards him. This, an ancient custom in India, is reported from the Vedda in Ceylon and some hunting tribes of Brazil.
Pellets of clay or small stones are hurled from a pocket in a double bowstring in India, Burma, Siam, etc., and also in east Brazil (fig. 5).
The twang of the taut bowstring suggested the elaboration of the weapon into a musical instrument, and with or without its gourd resonator, the musical bow is common in South Africa. Variations are found across India and the East Indies to Hawaii and the Marquesas; and westward, in the \Vest Indies, Central America and Patagonia.