EARLY BOOBS IN MEXICO The history of bookselling in America has a special interest. The Spanish settlements drew away from the old country much of its enterprise and best talent, and the presses of Mexico and other cities teemed with publications, mostly of a religious character.
The prologue of printing and bookselling in the New World was, in fact, written in Mexico City. Cortez landed at the har bour which he called Vera Cruz on Good Friday, 1519; within eighteen years a book press was in operation in the former capital of the Aztecs. At the instance of the first Viceroy, Don Antonio de Mendoza, and the first bishop, Don Fray Juan de Zumarraga, the famous printer of Seville, Juan Cromberger, sent to Mexico a printing press with all needed supplies, in charge of Juan Pablos, a Lombard from Brescia, originally known as Giovanni Paoli. It is probable that this was in the year 1536, and that in 1537 was printed the first book: Escala Espiritual of St. John Climacus, translated from Latin into Spanish by Fray Juan de Estrada. What is known with certainty is that in May 1538 a printing press had been established, and that in April 1540, "it was situ ated on the southwest corner of Cerrada de Santa Teresa la Antigua and Moneda streets, facing the wall of the Archbishop's palace" (Bibliogra fia mexicana del siglo xvi., por Joaquin Garcia Icarbalceta). A Manual de Adultos, with the imprint of Juan Pablos, was issued in 1540.
Among early books printed in Mexico, one of the most inter esting is the Three Dialogues, by Francisco Cervantes Salazar, which has the imprint, "Mexici, spud Joannem Paulum Brisen sem, A traveller from old Spain visits the capital city of New Spain, and is entertained by two worthy inhabitants. They propose to show him the beauties of the town, and set forth to gether on horseback along Tacuba street, the charms of which are related in their conversation: "How the view of this street delights the mind and refreshes the eyes ! How wide and ample it is, how straight, how level, all paved with stones, lest in winter the feet be mired. Along its centre, for ornament and use, flows water in its channel, open to the sky, that it may give the greater pleasure. All the houses on both sides are splendid and costly, such as befit the richest and most noble citizens ; they are so built that they might be called, not houses, but citadels." The hosts of the visitor explain that these mansions are solidly built because it was impossible in the beginning to gird the city with walls and towers as a protection against the multitude of enemies surrounding it. All the residences along the great street were, we are told, nearly of the same height, so as not to rob each other of the sun and also as a precaution against earthquakes. Further, it was thought that the free course of the winds through the city would ensure the health of its inhabitants. Nor were these dwellings built of wood or other common material, but rather of great stones artistically set, with the insignia of their lords carved above the doors. The roofs were flat. The visitor admires the palace of the Viceroy, greater and loftier than the rest, adorned with many columns and surmounted by a tower : "It is not a pal ace," he exclaims, "but another city!" On the tower of the palace was a clock with chimes.
They visit the great square, where were held the markets, the merchants of the whole province bringing their wares thither. There, perhaps, were also exhibited the first books printed and sold in the New World. One of the most valuable of these books was the Spanish-Aztec Dictionary of Alonso de Molina, printed in 1571. Several copies of this finely printed work are extant. (X. ; E. RH.) See Luis Gonzalez Obregon, Mexico Viejo (Paris-Mexico, 1900).
In 1647 appeared "An Almanack. . . . By Samuel Danforth, of Harvard College.... Cambridge. Printed by Matthew Day. Are to be sold by Hez. Usher at Boston. 1647." Pioneer Boston was followed by Philadelphia and New York 38 years later with another almanac whose imprint read : "Printed and sold by William Bradford, sold also by the author and H. Murrey in Philadelphia and Philip Richards in New York. 1685." Again Boston led when the first private library, that of "The Late Reverend and Learned Mr. Samuel Lee" is "Exposed . . . to sale by Duncan Campbell" in 1693, and scored once more when "the curious and valuable books belonging to the late Reverend and Learned Ebenezer Pemberton" were catalogued and offered for sale by auction on July 2, 1717. Book catalogues of general interest were few and far between in the 18th century and it was not until 1795 that one appeared in Philadelphia : that of the Moreau de St. Mery & Company's store which listed books in Spanish, Italian, German, Dutch and Latin, with over 90o items in French.
The 19th Century.—Booksellers of English Colonial America appear to have found little favour with the historian ; title-pages and colophons note many names that are difficult or impossible to trace elsewhere, and the sale of books at retail was usually an adjunct to printing and publishing. But the year 18o1 marks a striking departure through the organization of The American Company of Booksellers for the purpose of promoting the sale of books by means of fairs similar to those held annually at Leipzig. Matthew Carey of Philadelphia was the first president; a majority of the members were citizens of New York, Boston and Philadelphia. Sales at auction would appear to have fallen into disrepute at this period as one of the rules of the company forbade any member to dispose of books by this method.
In 1802 24 New York booksellers agreed to sponsor the "Literary Fair" to be held in that city in June and invited other booksellers in towns "accessible to water" to attend and to bring samples of such books as they desired to sell or exchange. The long room of the old Coffee House in Beaver street was the site chosen, and a substantial success may be inferred from the fact that at the close of the proceedings the New York members entertained their visitors at a banquet. The Philadelphia mem bers were hosts at the second fair which began on June 20, i 803 during the course of which one Jacob Johnson of Philadelphia was awarded the company's prize of $50, "or a gold medal of equal value," for having submitted the best specimen of printing ink of American manufacture, one that the members found superior to the London ink which they had hitherto used. The company continued to prosper ; membership increased ; new by laws and articles of association were adopted at a meeting in New York in 1804, and another fair was held in Newark the following year ; whereupon the company mysteriously dissolved "owing to a general dissatisfaction." In i 802, ten New York individuals and firms formed The New York Association of Booksellers to publish and sell school and text-books, and began with a Cicero in Latin and English. Phila delphia followed with a small organization of similar purpose during the next year, but both enterprises were short-lived. 1804 saw the publication of "A Catalogue of all the Books printed in the United States. ... Published by the Booksellers in Boston." This was a pamphlet of 79 pages listing 1,338 books divided among the categories of "Law, Physics, Divinity, Bibles, Miscel lanies, School-Books and Singing-Books." Book trade cataloguing then languished until 182o when Orville A. Roorbach began to compile a comprehensive record of American books which re mained in the press until 1849 when it was finally concluded and published. Addenda were supplied by the author and other pub lishers during the following year. Norton's Literary Adviser, in the nature of a trade journal, appeared in May 185 i and suffered various changes in style, title and ownership until Jan. 1872 when it appeared as The Weekly Trade Circular, and in 1873 became The Publisher's Weekly, continuing to-day its valuable career as official trade paper of the booksellers of the United States.
During a large part of the i 9th century books, largely for scholars and libraries, were imported from Europe. After the War of 1812 printing-presses multiplied rapidly, and with the spread of newspapers and education there also arose a demand for books, and publishers set to work to secure the advantages offered by the wide field of English literature, the whole of which they had the liberty of reaping free of all cost beyond that of production. The works of Scott, Byron, Moore, Southey, Wordsworth, and in deed of every author of note, were reprinted generally without the smallest payment to author or proprietor. Half the names of the authors in the so-called "American" catalogue of books printed between 182o and 1852 were British. By this means the works of the best authors were brought to the doors of all classes at low prices and in a great variety of forms. After the Civil War, as a consequence of the high price of labour and the restrictive duties imposed in order to protect native industry, coupled with the frequent intercourse with England, a great change took place, and American publishers and booksellers, even while there was still no international copyright, made liberal offers for early sheets of new publications. During this period Boston, New York and Phila delphia retained their old supremacy as bookselling centres.
Modern Conditions.—Bookselling, as a retail enterprise apart from publishing and printing, developed slowly during the 19th century. A majority of the important publishers maintained de partments for the sale at retail of their own publications and those of their brothers-in-trade; but such departments were usually subsidiary and were adulterated by stationery, playing cards and other foreign matter. Clergymen, pedagogues and mem bers of other professions were allowed discounts ruinous to profit; it was not until the turn of the century that a concerted and determined effort was made to place the trade independently upon a proper basis. In May 1 goo, there was organized and incorporated in New York city The American Booksellers Association for the principal purpose of enabling its members to establish and main tain the net price system. The retail price for all books intended for general sale was fixed by the publisher, discounts to the trade were arranged upon a sliding scale according to quantity, and bookselling at retail entered upon its first period of compara tive stability and security. Under able and energetic management and with the hearty co-operation of the publishers, the associa tion maintains to-day a thriving and exceptionally stimulating trade organization. Its only serious reverse occurred early in its career, when the principle of price maintenance was assailed by a department store in the metropolitan district which filed suit for damages under the Federal law known as the Sherman Act, claim ing that the price arrangement between bookseller and publisher constituted "a combination in restraint of trade." After long and costly litigation, the case was decided in favour of the plaintiff who, with other stores of the kind, continues to sell books at less than the price fixed by the publisher.
Current Bookselling.—Consideration of current conditions must begin with The American Book Trade Directory, New York, 1928, which lists 5,600 booksellers in the United States, divided among the following categories : circulating library ; department store ; drug store ; educational ; college texts ; school texts ; for eign; general bookstore; gift shop; books at holidays only; juve niles; law; medical; periodicals; old and rare; religious; second hand; subscription books; wholesale; and fine editions and modern firsts. This is the first authoritative publication of such a list ; earlier figures are contradictory and unreliable, but the categories alone indicate the growth in public interest and the increased distribution of the trade.
Periodicals relating directly or indirectly to the bookseller, and newspapers and magazines devoting more or less space to the reviewing of books also showed a striking growth during the same year. Publishers' records of chain stores—circulating libraries, drug and department stores—showed a greater volume of sales and a broadening of the demand for books other than fiction. One of the leading publishing houses at this time had increased the number of its branch bookshops to 26; one company operating as a circulating library, but also selling at retail, reported 53 stores in 14 cities and towns. Another marked increase is re corded in the number of new shops which concentrate on books of a special type or kind, or which emphasize a certain subject; a glance at the New York City Telephone Directory reveals firms devoted exclusively to art, philosophy, drama, Irish books, Orien talia and books in many foreign languages. A number of the larger cities support at least one shop which sells children's books only and which is specially decorated and equipped to appeal to the juvenile reader.
The largest and most inclusive stocks for the general book buyer are still to be found in the older stores, most of which bear the names of well-known publishers ; but the smaller shops more recently established are usually staffed by assistants of a new type who read widely, study the leading English and American reviews, and are thoroughly prepared to supply, if requested, exceptionally efficient and intelligent advice and suggestions, in addition to the conventional filling of orders. Co-operative shops appear to thrive best in college and university towns; member ship in these is secured by the purchase of one or more shares of stock at a nominal price; dividends are paid at the prevailing rate of interest, and members are entitled to a discount on their purchases.
In recent years, modern first editions have become an important factor and are responsible for a number of newcomers to the trade, especially in the larger cities; early "firsts" of the more esteemed contemporary authors have registered sensational ad vances in price : a fine copy of Rudyard Kipling's "Schoolboy Lyrics," published at a few shillings in 1881, sold in 1924 f or $1,5o0 and in 1928 for $3,5oo. The interest in and demand for old and rare books has resulted in an unprecedented rise in values during the last few years and corresponding prosperity to this ancient and honourable branch of the trade. The following com parative table of approximate prices is revealing:— Boswell's Life of Johnson (boards) 1903—$ 37.5o 1928—$25oo Defoe's Robinson Crusoe 19oo--$ 7.5o 1926—$3525 Swift's Gulliver's Travels p9oo—$ 56.00 1927—$42oo Omar-Fitzgerald's Rubaiyat 1901—$260.0o 1927—$325o An interesting phenomenon in present-day bookselling is the rise and growth of the Book Club organized upon a national scale. Two, operating at the present time, 1928, may be taken as fair examples. Their general features are similar : a board of editors, authors and critics who choose one new book per month, or offer a choice of several, for distribution among the members. In the case of the first club, the editorial board reports one month in advance to the members who then make their selection and agree to purchase not less than four books per year at the published price, postage extra; payments monthly within ten days of receipt of bill. The second club allows no appeal from the rulings of its board as to the most desirable book for its members each month, but offers its selection postage prepaid, at a reduction from the retail price to the public. Payment for a year's service may be made in advance, in full or in instalments. The first club, beginning in April 1926, with 4,5oo subscribers recorded a membership of 85,000 in Sept. 1928; the second increased from 5,732 in March 1927 to 55,000 in Sept. 1928.
Second-hand booksellers are now widely distributed throughout the country. These dealers buy private libraries and the over stock of publishers and retailers which they dispose of at less than list prices by direct sale and catalogues by mail. Many agencies assist in the marketing of books at retail. The R. R. Bowker Com pany supplies The Trade List Annual which consists of the cata logues of all publishers of importance to the general trade bound in one volume. The H. W. Wilson Company, New York, issues The United States Catalogue with frequent supplements, which contains a list of all books, pamphlets and documents published in the United States, arranged in one alphabet under author, title and subject. A similar index of current books appears in each issue of the Publisher's Weekly. These three publications are indispensable to the general bookseller. Another aid of great value is the National Association of Book Publishers which sup plies the retail trade with various means for the development of new outlets, in addition to the usual medium of advertising in newspapers and magazines. This association publishes and mails gratis the bi-monthly Year-Round Bookselling News, a pamphlet of practical advice and suggestion for all branches of the trade. It also provides original and striking posters for display; de scriptive circulars of sets, series and single volumes with the booksellers' imprint and return-order blanks; ably written and attractively printed pamphlets concerned with such details as the increasing of mail orders, improvement in shop arrangement, equipment and display; bookkeeping and accounting; and rental libraries.