ENGLISH BILLIARDS The English table consists of a framework of mahogany or other hard wood, with eight legs, strong enough to bear the weight of five slabs of slate, each 2ft. wide by 6ft. ' in., and about sin. thick. These having been fitted together to form a level surface, and a green cloth of the finest texture having been tightly strained over it, the cushions are screwed on, and the pockets, for which provision has been made in the slates, are adjusted. As the inside edge of the cushion is not perpendicular to the bed of the table, but is bevelled away so that the top overhangs the base by about 4 of an inch, the actual playing area of the table is 6ft. wide but is I2in. short of Taft. long. The height of the table from the floor to the top of the cushion rail must be from 2ft. 92in. to 2ft. 101 inches.
The three spots are on the centre line of the table, and are usually marked by small circular pieces of black tissue paper or court plaster; sometimes they are specially marked for the oc casion in chalk. The baulk line and the D are marked either with chalk, tailors' pipeclay, or an ordinary lead pencil; no other marks appear on the table. Smaller tables and dinner tables convertible into billiard tables provide plenty of practice and amusement, provided that the relation of the length to the breadth be ob served. On these tables full-sized balls may be used, the pockets being made slightly smaller than in the full-size table.
In the early part of the 19th century the bed of the table was made of wood, occasionally of marble or stone; green baize was used to cover both the bed and the cushions, the latter made of layers of list. Then, as now, the cushions were glued to a wooden framework which is screwed on to the bed of the table. The old list cushions possessed so little resilience that about 1835 india rubber was substituted, the value of the improvement being somewhat modified by the fact that in cold weather the rubber became hard and never recovered its elasticity. Vulcanite resisted the cold, but was not "fast" enough, i.e., did not permit the ball to rebound quickly; but eventually a substance was invented, practically proof against cold and sufficiently elastic for all pur poses. Late in the 1 gth century pneumatic cushions were tried, tubes into which air could be pumped, but they did not become popular, though the so-called "vacuum" cushions give good re sults. The shape of the face of the cushion has gone through many modifications, owing to the difficulty experienced in the actual striking of the ball when resting against the cushion with only a small fraction of its surface offered to the cue; but low cushions are made which expose nearly half of the upper part of the ball.
From 187o-85 matches for the championship were played on "championship tables," the pockets measuritig only 3in. at the "fall." The tables in ordinary use have 31in. pockets, but in the "standard tables," introduced by the Billiard Association at the end of the i9th century, the pockets are slightly smaller, the As sociation providing templets which a table must pass before being recognized as a "standard." The principal games are three in number—billiards, pyramids and pool, and from these spring a variety of others. The object of the player in each game, however, is either to drive one or other of the balls into one or other of the pockets, or to cause the striker's ball to come into successive contact with two other balls. The former stroke is known as a hazard (a term derived from the fact that the pockets used to be called hazards in old days), the latter as a cannon. When the ball is forced into a pocket the stroke is called a winning hazard ; when the striker's ball falls into a pocket after contact with another ball, the stroke is a losing hazard; "red hazards" means that the red ball is the object ball, "white hazards" the white.
The spot-stroke is a series of winning hazards made by pocket ing the red ball into one of the top pockets off the spot. The ob ject is, first, to make sure of the hazard, and next, to leave the striking in such a position as to enable the player to repeat the stroke. It was known as long ago as 1825 when a run of 2 2 spots caused quite a sensation. John Roberts, sen., who suc ceeded Kentfield as champion in 1849, worked hard at the stroke, but never made, in public, a longer run than o4 in succession. But W. Cook, John Roberts, jun., and others, assisted by the im provements made in the implements of the game, soon outdid Roberts, sen., only to be themselves outdone by W. J. Peall and W. Mitchell. In 1888 W. J. Peall made 663 "spots" in succession, and in 1890 in a break of 3,3o4—the longest spot break—no less than 3,183 of the points were scored by spot strokes. C. Mem mott made 423 winning hazards into one pocket by the aid of the "screw-back." The result was that the Association altered the rules in such manner as to make the stroke practically impossible.
Rules were then framed to make such affairs impossible. But in 1927, owing to a flaw in the wording of the rules, Reece discovered a method of evading them, known as the "pendulum" cannon, and fresh rules had to be drafted to overcome his ingenuity.
A long jenny is a losing hazard made into one of the top pockets, when the object ball is close to the cushion along which the strik er's ball must travel. Short jennies are similar strokes into the middle pockets.
When the cue-ball is so played that its centre is aimed at the extreme edge of the object-ball, the cue-ball's course is diverted at what is called the "natural" or "half-ball" angle. This half-ball angle is regarded as the standard angle for billiards, providing, as it does, a definite spot, the edge of the object-ball, at which to aim.
The next development was borrowed from the French game, which consists entirely of cannon strokes. Both French and American professors, giving undivided attention to cannons and not being permitted to use the push-stroke, arrived at a perfection in controlling or "nursing" the balls to which English players could not pretend; yet the principles involved in making a long series of cannons were applied, and leading professionals soon acquired the necessary delicacy of touch. The plan is to get the three balls close to each other, say within a space which a hand can cover, and not more than from 4 to 8in. from a cushion. The striker's ball should be behind the other two, one of which is nearer the cushion, the other a little farther off, and farther for ward. The striker's ball is tapped quietly on the one next the cushion, and hits the third ball so as to drive it an inch or two in a line parallel to the cushion. The ball first struck rebounds from the cushion, and at the close of the stroke all three balls are at rest in a position exactly similar to that at starting, which is called by the French position mere. Thus each stroke is a repetition of the previous one, the position of the balls being relatively the same, but actually forming a series of short advances along the cushion. With the push-stroke a great number of these cannons could be quickly made, say 5o in 31- minutes; and, as that means points, scoring was rapid. Most of the great spot-barred breaks contained long series of these cannons, and their value as records is correspondingly diminished, for in such hair-breadth distances very often no one but the player, and sometimes not even he, could tell whether a stroke was made or missed or was foul. Push-barred, the cannons are played nearly as fast ; but with most men the series is shorter, masse strokes being used when the cannon cannot be directly played.
The Championship.—When Kentfield declined to play in John Roberts, sen., assumed the title, and held the position till 187o, when he was defeated by his pupil W. Cook. From 1870-85 the championship was shared by W. Cook, J. Roberts, jun., and From 1885 to 1899 John Roberts occupied a position in bil liards which no other man has occupied in any game before or since, a position higher even than that of W. G. Grace in the cricket field. There was nobody to approach him. He made his own circle and remained impregnable in the centre of it. Men like W. J. Peall, Mitchell, North, Diggle, Richards, Shorter, all fine performers, stood no chance with him, even with a start of a quar ter of the game. Moreover, it was not alone the superiority of his execution. He created his own atmosphere wherever he played, but especially in his headquarters at the Egyptian Hall in Picca dilly. Men spoke of "going to see Roberts," not of going to see billiards. He used to play games of 24,00o up, necessitating his making I ,000 at each session, against all comers, giving starts ranging from eight to ten thousand. At length he issued a challenge to give any man in the world half the game start. W. J. Peall was, according to the rules in force, quite as incontestably champion as Roberts himself was at the spot-barred game, which the latter had invented, rightly foreseeing that the spot-stroke was killing the game from a spectacular point of view. Peall took up the challenge and won by a considerable margin, though in the course of the game there had been times when it seemed as though Roberts might pull through after all.
About this time another reformer appeared in the world of bil liards, though this time an amateur. Mr. Sydenham Dixon took great interest in performers, and performances, rules and regula tions, and seeing clearly that the game was in need of a governing body, he founded the Billiard Association of which he finally be came president, remaining so until its amalgamation with the Billiards Control Council in 1919. It may safely he said that no man has done more for the game. Broad-minded, with a sense of justice and fair play for all, he possessed a strength of character which led to many a clash with anyone attempting to control the game to his own advantage from the professional point of view, from John Roberts to Melbourne Inman and Smith. Roberts would have nothing to do with any championship other than one of his own arrangement. The other professionals regarded it as hopeless to contend against him. Not so Mr. Dixon, who actually ignored him and started the Billiard Association championship in 1889. He soon found many professionals eager to play for it, car rying as it did amongst other prizes, an income of Imo a year to the holder. Roberts, however, remained aloof, an unfortunate state of affairs, for he could certainly, at that time, have given substantial starts to many of the holders, and the Egyptian Hall remained the principal attraction.
Roberts was the very Beau Brummel of the game. His good looks and his bow to his audience as he led the way into his hall combined to make a picture which those who saw it will never forget. And though for the sake of the game Mr. Dixon ignored him, no one in reality admired him more. Years alone could overcome him, and as his beard grew grey he dropped slowly out of the game at which he was still supreme. The idea of his taking a start from anyone was simply not to be contemplated. He had long searched for a possible successor, and pitched first on Steven son and later on Tom Newman, taking the latter off on world tours until the boy came nearly to Roberts' standard by the time death removed the supreme billiard genius of more than a quarter of a century.
Dawson stood out as his successor. Had not Roberts consented to play a level match with the sturdy Yorkshireman? But Steven son was close alongside. In style the two were widely opposed, the latter dainty and dapper in play as in person, the former, more square-fronted with less intricate methods. But at the very moment Dawson had gained his objective, fate struck him down with an affection of the eyes which completely put an end to his billiards. This left Stevenson champion under Billiard Association rules. He was satisfied in his own mind that he could now beat Roberts and that a victory over him would set his reputation on a pedestal. Very naturally Roberts considered that he had every thing to lose and nothing to gain by a level match, and consented to play only if the younger man took a start of 2,000 points in 18,000. Rather than not have a match at all Stevenson agreed, and one of the most famous games in the history of billiards fol lowed. Moreover, before the end of the first week all Stevenson's start had gone and the apparently still invincible veteran had the game won. But just when all men cried that he was beaten, the younger player took the bit between his teeth, caught up and passed his formidable rival and in the end won a great victory. So tremendously had Stevenson been oppressed by the sense of the meeting, by the atmosphere of Roberts' following, and their air of certainty of his superiority, that until the game was practically lost he could not find his touch : Stevenson 18,000; Roberts 16,480.
This victory left Stevenson, a very young man, apparently champion for a decade. At this point an unexpected figure emerged from the crowd, Melbourne Inman. Son of a professional player he had played with success most of the third class, and even these successes were gained to everyone's astonishment. His position at the table, cue delivery, and clumsy method of waving his cue about in an amateurish style to the danger of the lights and the markers' eyes, as though trying to assist his ball to go where he had designed to send it, gave no sort of impression that he was a future champion. None the less, he worked his way through the second class as surely as he had done through the third, principally by means of intense pains and regard for safety tactics, together with the British attribute of not knowing when he was beaten, and a certain number of close watchers of the game, among them the president of the Billiard Association, were not surprised when he challenged for the championship and in 1908 won it. Inman literally wore his opponents down. They be came depressed and unable to produce their best. Time after time, after waiting while Inman had made 50 or 6o most laboriously, they went to the table to find themselves confronted with hopeless situations, when the stroke, itself intensely difficult, implied, in case of failure, another easy leave for another heavy-handed ef fort. Of course Inman soon rid himself of his poor style, till he became the master of technique and smooth action that he was at his zenith; but compared with his other great rivals, Stevenson and Reece, it still appeared long odds on either of them, although Reece was nearly always beaten. Reece once won a game in Aus tralia, and in 1927 won another by means of the pendulum can non. Style is by no means a criterion of scoring ability, delight ful as it is to watch.
The trio remained for some time in a class by themselves until the composition-ball, losing-hazard artist, George Gray, appeared in 1910. Until his defeat at the hands of Smith, then almost unknown, and in receipt of a considerable start, Gray was regarded as unconquerable ; with composition balls indeed he was. How ever, in the 1914 championship, played with ivory balls, he was beaten by Reece. This was a memorable championship, for the game which had been all Roberts till it became Dawson-Steven son, and turned later into Inman-Stevenson-Reece, now became Newman-Smith, with Davis threatening their heels (1921) . Breaks, owing to changes in rules, freak cannons, etc., are difficult to compare, but with composition balls in Australia Walter Lind rum made a run of 1,879, second only to Gray's unfinished 2,000 effort. In 1927 the ivory ball record was held by Newman with a break of 1,370. Davis, Newman and Smith were at this time the only other players who had made runs of four figures with ivory balls. In other respects the game has undergone little change in the last 5o years so far as the implements are concerned.
None the less, billiards began to lose its hold on the public after the World War. With the exception of The Times, and such pa pers as are confined to sport, it was very poorly reported, many journals ignoring it altogether, though there was a monthly paper entirely devoted to it, The Billiard Player. There was very little money in the game in 1927 for any but those absolutely at the head of the profession. Except the halls provided by the billiard table makers there was no place where it could be seen except dur ing the championship. This development is the more strange in view of the fact that the popularity of the game as a pastime for amateurs increased during the same period. Great numbers of halls sprang up throughout the country, holding 20 or 3o tables, every one of which found users at certain times of the day, whilst snooker, as a rival game, could be seen even oftener than billiards. Long matches, sometimes of a fortnight's duration, are perhaps an explanation of the decline. New methods are certainly called for.
But if things from a professional point of view were not particu larly cheerful in this period, the case was quite the contrary among the amateurs, who, being much more amenable to discipline, were easier to manage than the professionals. Their championship never caused any trouble to the governing body. The first was held in 1888 and was won by Mr. H. A. 0. Lonsdale, a player with a beau tiful style who came out and won it again in 1910, after an interval of 20 years or more. For a little while there were two amateur championships. One, the original, under the rules of the Billiard Association : the other under those of the Billiards Control Coun cil. Happily for the game these ultimately became one body with a strong, hard-working committee whose whole concern was the betterment of the game.
The difference in play between the best amateurs and the best professionals is marked; it is natural that those whose living de pends on their ability should excel those not so dependent. The latter devote only an hour or two daily to play and less to practice; the former make the game their business, especially devoting many hours a day to practice. Another good reason for the superiority of the professional is that he continually plays for a week or a fort night on the same table, with his own cues, and the same set of balls. Contrast this with the ordinary amateur's play. He goes from table to table, each one differing in strength, in cushions and in cloth, sometimes finding himself faced with composition, some times with ivory balls, and with, indifferent cues except in his club or when playing on his own table at home. How can he be ex pected to give any idea of his merit when asked to play after such mixed experiences? The professional, of course, takes up a position that is easily in telligible, for it is naturally based upon financial considerations. In every professional question that is only to be expected and may be sympathized with, but what cannot be so treated is the profes sional's claim for exemption from the control of governing bodies, and his desire to rely solely on the power of the press. An exception must be made in the case of Newman, the 1927 cham pion. He competed for the title without a grumble and became a strong favourite with the public in consequence. In 1928 Davis beat him in the championship and succeeded him as title-holder.
The outstanding figure amongst amateurs in the beginning was Mr. A. P. Gaskell, who, however, relied for his predominance on his ability at the spot-stroke. He won the championship five times. In those days more than one championship was played for annually, a match taking place whenever a challenger appeared. Mr. Christy was another great exponent of the spot-stroke, by means of which rumour credits him with at least one four-figure break, and there were a good many professionals then who could not claim that.
The changed rules applied equally to amateurs as to professionals with the result that new names sprang into prominence. Messrs. Fry (8) , Virr (6) and Graham Symes (3) between them won 17 championships. Mr. Fry's eight victories were won during an in terval of 32 years-1893-1925. Mr. G. Symes only gave up com peting when the composition balls came into use. Many winners of the amateur championship subsequently became professionals, amongst them Courtenay, Lovejoy, Breed and Earlam. It is often said that there are plenty of ama teurs about the West End clubs who could easily beat those who compete in the championships, but Mr. Fry's excellent book states that in his lengthy experi ence he has only known two ama teurs who would have held much chance of winning the open tro phy—Messrs. H. R. Rimington Wilson, and Douglas Lane. The former is said to have played a level match against Mitchell at his best and beaten him, and the latter was endowed with power of cue and eye which enabled him to make strokes equal to those of the very best professionals. In a previous generation there was a similarly gifted amateur of the name of Rogers.
There is one game on the billiard table at which a few amateurs can hold their own against the professionals—snooker. No pro fessional had made a break of 10o up to 1927, but this was done by an amateur, whilst some of the latter have gone far in the Open Snooker championship. The game has become exceedingly popu lar, more so than billiards itself, especially in the north of Eng land and Scotland. In 1928 Davis made a hundred break.
An Empire amateur billiard championship was started in 1925, representatives from England, Scotland, Ireland, Australia and South Africa taking part. This was won by Earlam who then turned professional. It is questionable whether those who intend taking up the game professionally should be allowed to play in amateur events. They might easily be excluded without giving any offence by all the players having to sign a statement that they had no intention of turning professional for at least five years.
From 1928 to 1935 the leading English professional was J. Davis, with T. Newman his strongest rival. The Dominions, however, placed two great players in the field: W. Lindrum of Australia, and C. McConachy of New Zealand. Lindrum proved practically unbeatable, and in 1933 he won the championship, sub sequently retaining it as the world's championship. From the English championship was confined to players from the United Kingdom. In 1932, at Thurston's Hall, London, Lindrum made a break of 4,137—the highest under modern conditions.
In recent years composition balls have been used in all matches. The standard of play among the leading professionals has ad vanced so greatly that it was necessary to modify the rules in order to restrict the size of the breaks. In 1935-36 the rule, for this purpose, was that the cue ball must be played across the balk line once during the last 20 points in every 200 points of a break; and this certainly has the effect of limiting runs of "nursery" cannons.
Recent winners of professional and amateur championships: BIBLIOGRAPHY.—W. Cook, Billiards (1884) ; H. Vignaux, Le Billard Bibliography.—W. Cook, Billiards (1884) ; H. Vignaux, Le Billard (1889) ; J. A. Thatcher, Championship Billiards (1898) ; C. V. Locock, Side and Screw (19o') ; G. W. Hemming, Billiards Mathematically Treated ('904) ; B. Garno, Modern Billiards (19o9)• Among the latest works are:—J. P. Mannock and S. A. Mussabini, Billiards Expounded, the standard work on the game ; T. Aiken, Plain Talks to Billiard Players (1924) ; T. Newman, Advanced Billiards (1924) and Billiard "do's" and "don'ts" (1924) ; J. Roberts, Billiards Guide (1924) ; W. Smith, First Steps to Billiards (1924) and How to Play Snooker and other Pool Games (1924) ; W. Hoffe, 3o Years of Billiards (1925) ; A. F. Peall, All about Billiards (1925) ; T. Reece, Dainty Billiards (1925). (A. E. MA. ; X.)