IRISH AND SCOTTISH BOROUGHS The Anglo-Norman influences which moulded the development of the English borough were extended, with the settlement of the Anglo-Norman nobles, to both Scotland and Ireland. From this point of view Ireland may be regarded as an English colony in which municipal institutions developed on lines similar to those of the mother-country, and the borough charters of the 12th and 13th centuries, the new foundations of the 17th and the corrup tion of the i8th, are closely paralleled. In Scotland, with the same general similarity, some difference in detail developed in the course of time. The royal burgh was the equivalent of the royal borough in England, but its mercantile privileges were greater. Scotland was, in effect, divided into a number of districts within each of which a royal burgh had the monopoly of trade, no other grants of market or fair were made, and no other borough could be created save by royal licence. The mesne bor oughs were known as burghs of regality or of barony and were always, in theory, created by royal grant. Two other special fea tures in Scotland were the association of the free burghs in the north of Scotland called the Hanse, by which a common standard of rights and duties was maintained among the members ; and the convention or separate assembly of royal burghs, dating appar ently from 1487, which saw to "the welfare of merchandise and the common profit of the burghs," revised the methods of munici pal election, and assessed the division among the burghs of the parliamentary subsidy due from them. Representatives of the burghs sat in Scottish parliaments from 1295 onwards, and the existence of this separate convention is attributable to the com parative powerlessness of the lower house in the Scottish parlia ments. By the 19th century municipal reform was even more urgently needed in Scotland than in England, and the Scottish Burghs bill of 1833, which set up representative town councils and vested them with the property and rights of the old corpora tions, served as an important precedent for the English measure of BIBLIOGRAPHY.-F. W. Maitland, Township and Borough (i898), Bibliography.-F. W. Maitland, Township and Borough (i898), a study of the mediaeval borough of Cambridge ; A. Ballard, Domes day Boroughs (1904) and The English Boroughs in the Twelfth Century (1914) ; M. Bateson, Borough Customs (19o4—o6) ; S. and B. Webb, English Local Government, vols. ii. and iii., The Manor and the Borough (19o8—o9) , a study of the borough 1688-1835 ; A. Ballard and J. Tait, Borough Charters (1913-23) , the standard collection of town charters admirably analysed and edited ; M. de W. Hemmeon, Burgage Tenure (1914) ; C. Gross, Sources and Literature of English History (1915) ; E. D. Simon, A City Council from Within (1926). For the modern Scottish burgh, Mabel Atkinson, Local Government in Scotland (1904). See also articles in the English Historical Review (189o-1927) by C. W. Colby, H. W. C. Davis, A. Ballard, M. Bateson, 3. Tait and M. McKisack, and an article by A. Ballard on the Scottish Burgh in the Scottish Historical Review (1916) . For Bibliographies, see C. Gross, Bibliography of British Municipal History (1897), and A. Ballard and J. Tait, vol. ii. (1923). (H. CA.) In the United States, boroughs existed in colonial Virginia, first, in 1619, as mere election districts for the House of Bur gesses. Later, in 1722, a borough charter, somewhat similar to the borough organization in England, was granted to Williams burg, with others to Norfolk and Richmond, all given by the governor. The name borough was dropped after the Revolution and now it is used only in the United States to designate the five administrative sub-divisions of New York City ; Manhattan, The Bronx, Brooklyn, Queens and Richmond, which are coterminous with the five counties of New York, The Bronx, Kings, Queens and Richmond (Staten Island) . Each of these New York City boroughs has a President elected by the voters, and he is a mem ber of the city's Board of Estimate. These boroughs have taken over the work to a great degree of the several municipalities which were merged into the greater New York City when it was created in 1898. The term borough is also applied to incorporated towns or villages in New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Connecticut and Minnesota.