THE BLIND OF OTHER OLD WORLD NATIONS The first effort towards organized help for the blind in Europe was made by Christians. St. Basil opened a hospice for the blind in Cappadocia during the 4th century ; a Syrian hermit Lymnaeus followed his example in the 5th. Two hundred years later a retreat was established in Jerusalem for those without sight and not long afterwards the movement struck roots in France, originated by St. Bertrand, Bishop of Le Mans.
In the i ith century William the Conqueror founded several hospices in Normandy. The i 2th century saw the beginning made in Bavaria and in 1260 an asylum was founded in Paris by Louis IX. (St. Louis), known as the Hotel des Quinze-Vingts, which has endured to this day. It was not until the close of the i8th cen tury that any real attempt was made to educate or train those without sight.
Valentin flatly, the man to whom the title "Father and Apostle of the Blind" was afterwards given, had his attention attracted to the problem by the contrast afforded by the public performance of Theresa von Paradis and the spectacle presented by some untrained and illiterate blind persons who, tricked out in fantastic attire, were trying to attract custom by making mock music. Shortly afterwards he came across Francois Lesueur, a blind boy, begging in the streets, and resolved to make a practical beginning. Compensating the child for his lost earnings, Flatly began to train him, and almost by accident discovered a method of embossing letters that Francois could decipher. With fine courage flatly opened the Institution National des Jeunes Aveugles, and a phil anthropic society sent him 12 blind children as his first pupils. News of Haily's success in teaching these children to read spread. The Academy of Science examined and approved his raised print, and he was received by the king. When the revolution broke out Haiiy's school was taken over by the State and later incorporated with the Quinze-Vingts. In i8o6 the emperor Paul of Russia invited Valentin 'Tally to Russia there to establish a school on similar lines, which he did so successfully that others were opened in Finland and Poland. Sweden was quick to follow suit. Great Britain had opened her Liverpool school in 1791, and Vienna an establishment in 1804. Hauy also established a school in Berlin (18o6) and within a short time institutions were opened in almost every German principality and throughout the Continent.
In the early years of the 19th century America began to move, and the New England Blind Asylum, later to be known as the Perkins Institution and Massachusetts School for the Blind, was founded as the direct outcome of a visit paid by an American doctor to the school founded by Valentin Haiiy in Paris. The blind historian, William H. Prescott, was one of the organizers. A doctor, Samuel Howe, was sent abroad to study methods and returned bringing with him two blind teachers, one from France, and one from England.
The 40o war-blinded come in a separate category and are dealt with by the societies organized for the benefit of disabled ex-serv ice men. They have a preference on the application lists for work in tobacco shops, which are a state monopoly.
Belgium.—There are eight schools for the blind in Belgium, three for boys, two for girls, and three mixed. These are main tained by private enterprise and are not State-managed, though two are largely maintained by the Governments of the provinces in which they are situated. In the case of five of these schools they are managed and staffed by religious bodies. In 1927 the number of blind children at these schools was 403, various pre ventive measures by way of the education of the public and regulations in regard to conditions of child-birth, having in recent years greatly reduced the rate of infant blindness. The majority of blind people are trained as musicians or in occupations con nected with this profession.
Owing to the country being over-run by the armies of the Cen tral Powers during the greater part of the war Belgium was unable to make adequate arrangements for the care of her blinded soldiers until after 1918. A small, though noteworthy part of British effort to help Belgium in her difficulties, was the training and care of a number of Belgian blinded soldiers at St. Dunstan's, London (q.v.), during 1915-18.
After the Armistice, Belgian blinded soldiers were trained and re-educated at an institute at Boitsfort, Brussels, but upon the completion of the training problem this was closed, and the Queen's fund for blinded soldiers founded, to assist former inmates of the Boitsfort institute with monetary grants, help in kind, advice, etc.
China.—Blindness is very prevalent in China owing to neglect in infancy, disease and cholera, but no Government statistics are available. There are over 20 centres for educating the blind, and these are supported by missionary societies or interested for eigners. At these the inmates are trained in basket-making, net ting, etc. The Hill Murray school for boys, Peking, was the first to be established in 1874, followed by the David Hill school for boys, Hankow, in 1888, and a school for girls in Canton in 1891.
As blind people in China have established a reputation for the possession of occult powers many of the untrained gain a liveli hood by exercising these, fortune-telling and begging. Small print ing presses have been set up at Peking and Shanghai which issue hooks and a magazine. What is known as the "union system" of Braille is used, worked on a phonetic basis. The difficulty of producing Braille books in China is obvious since there are over o,000 characters in the Chinese language.
Czechoslovakia.—The care of the blind in Czechoslovakia is in the hands of the State (as regards the provinces of Slovakia and Ruthenia), of the provincial authorities (in the provinces of Bohemia and Moravia), and of charitable institutions 3,vhich are suhsidized partly by the State and partly by the four individual provinces into which the country is divided for matters of admin ist ration. In Bohemia there are three institutions for children, and three for adults; in Moravia one provincial institute for the educa tion of the blind at Brno, and three institutions for adults main tained by societies. In Slovakia one State institution for blind children, and an establishment for the congenital blind from the .ages of 15 and 20 attached to the Red Cross. In Carpathian Ruthenia there is an establishment for blind children. There are a number of societies for the benefit of the adult blind, the most important being in Prague, where there are workshops and sale rooms for the goods made, and hostels for the blind workers. There are no pensions for the aged civilian blind.
The Ministry of Socia.1 Welfare is responsible for activities for the blind. It arranges for education from the age of seven to 14 or 16, then drafts the pupils to industrial schools for training, after which the Ministry makes an endeavour to find employment for them.
The war blinded are, as in Germany, given preferential consid eration in regard to employment in State-owned tobacco shops, are granted loans and provided with dog guides. The totally blind receive a State pension of 5,000 pangoes (equivalent to .f3o) per annum. Of the total estimated number of blind people in Czecho slovakia (about 5,000) 600 are blinded ex-service men.
France.—France has a blind population of approximately 29,000, including the war-blinded (3,000 in 1918) and to assist these she has 35 schools, 23 workshops and 19 homes.
The oldest society in France for the benefit of the blind is the Quinze-Vingts founded 600 years ago by "St. Louis" after his return from the Crusades. There is always a long waiting list of those hoping for admission. The fortunate ones are provided with rooms for themselves and families and a small pension; complete independence is maintained. Those on the original foundation used to earn money by offering up prayers. Annexed to the Quinze-Vingts is La Societe d'Assistance aux Aveugles reconnue d'utilite Publique, which gives financial aid and finds employment.
The Valentin flatly association stands high among the societies which give fine service to the blind. It has 15,000 names upon its register, undertakes the care of children, provides vocational re education, supplies tools and raw materials, sells goods made by the blind, runs workshops, visits the sick and aged and offers help in lesser ways. Its branch, the Centre d'Approvisionnement Intel lectuel is very active. The Bibliotheque Braille has 2,5oo readers on its lists, to whom 56,000 volumes have been circulated.
The French Government supports one school for the blind, the famous Institution National des Jeunes Aveugles, which was founded by Valentin flatly in 1784. It accommodates both boys and girls and is under the control of the Ministere du pavail et de l'Hygiene. The institute provides a general education with musical training for those qualified to receive it, places its pupils and undertakes after-care work. A Braille printing establishment publishes both French and foreign literature.
Outside this official organization there are many private organi zations to which some funds are allotted by the departments and municipalities. Among the smaller establishments doing interest ing work is that of the Blind Sisters of St. Paul (Les Soeurs Aveugles de St. Paul), which was founded in 185o by Mere Ber gunion. The community originally numbered 13 nuns of whom seven were blind.
A French blinded soldier draws 6,3oo francs per annum in pen sion, which in special cases may be augmented to o,000. There is a oc,', increase for additional disability. The Government makes a children's allowance of 83o francs per annum. In 1924 France passed a compulsory Employment Act for the benefit of her handi capped citizens, but only those blind who lost their ight in the World War can claim the benefit of the act, and employers were given two years in which to make any necessary changes in their staffs. The number of places to be reserved in each particular industry is settled by the Ministry of Labour in consultation with the provincial authority for the war-disabled. Those reduced 8o% in capacity (this includes the blind) are counted double in respect of the obligation of employment. The wage-rate is fixed by a State commission. Notice of discharge must not be less than two weeks for a workman and two months for a clerk. There are a number of voluntary institutions in France formed primarily for the benefit of the war-blinded. Among these should be mentioned the Union des Aveugles de Guerre which has raised a subscription emergency fund and runs a seaside home for the benefit of those needing rest. The Phare de France runs a guest house accommodating 5o men at a low rate, and Les Amis des Soldats Aveugles distributes gifts and funds. Through the French Red Cross the American Braille press distributes Braille papers to war-blinded men throughout France.
The most important move in connection with the blind in Ger many was the passage of the Employment of the Handicapped Act enacted in 1919, amended in 1923. This makes compulsory the engagement of one disabled man if 20 normal workers are employed, with one additional for every further unit of 5o. Dis abled under the act means those so% handicapped through the war or accident, and consequently pensioned. Employers are obliged to permit their businesses to be inspected in order that work may be found for disabled men and those who do not engage the requi site number are required to pay a redemption tax of six marks for every working day for every war-disabled man not so employed. A disabled man can be dismissed only after a month's notice and with the consent of the general after-care department, and the dis missed employee has the right of appeal to the commission of war disabled which is formed at every general after-care department. A recalcitrant employer may be fined anything from one to i,000 marks, while the privilege of the Handicapped Act may be tempo rarily withdrawn from a difficult employee. In all cases the war-blinded are given preference.
A committee for examination and adaptation of new professions and working possibilities for the blind, has been formed by blind experts and representatives of trade and industry, which has resulted in the discovery of 200 fresh avenues of employment. The possibility of factory work as a means of livelihood for those so handicapped came about by chance. A blinded soldier who had been a blacksmith vowed that he could never be happy at any work which did not enable him to touch iron. The founder of the Silex school for the blind obtained permission to search for possible work for this man in a munition factory, and succeeded so well that five began work there a few days later. At Siemens Town, near Berlin, 98 blind men have found employment. The earnings of a blind man average 770% that of a sighted person.
As a result of the united efforts of the Association of War Blinded Soldiers and the German Sheep Dog Society, a school for the training of dog-guides was opened soon after the war. These have proved successful in many cases and the German Govern ment gives a small subsidy to every blind man provided with a dog to meet cost of upkeep. Applicants for dogs attend at the training school and dog and man complete the course together.
The German State pays an annual sum of approximately 22,671,000 marks for the support of her blinded soldiers.
The Leipzig library is the largest centre for the distribution of literature in Germany. It contains 26,00o books.
Work for Italian war-blinded has been undertaken in various centres, including Milan, and in 1927 a workshop for the war blinded was opened in Rome, and a home to house the workers who remain there is nearing completion.
At this period there were two distinct classes of blind people in Japan, monks and laymen. The most famous of the former belonged to a Buddhist sect, and travelled the country playing musical instruments and offering up prayers. Of the laymen a few adopted literature, while the lesser educated practised acupunture, massaging and shampooing ; professions which were reserved to them to a great degree, the gilds to which they belonged being powerful.
In 1870 many of the privileges of the blind, the Government posts, the levy and right of monopolization of certain professions, were swept away, those with sight being permitted to enter into competition with them. A few years later (1878) the first private school for the blind and dumb was opened by private enterprise. There are now 82 in all, one government, 28 public and S3 private schools in existence ; two thirds of these are very small. The sys tem is free, co-educational, vocational and residential. Voluntary contributions and Government grants defray expenses. There is no compulsory education for blind children, as the accommodation is inadequate. The Government subsidizes every student training as a teacher. So far no social work or after-care work has been organized for the blind in Japan. Both a daily and a weekly news paper are published in Braille, each having a circulation of about 1,000. The number of blind in Japan is about ioo,000.
There are schools for the blind in the principal cities; that in Moscow accommodated 18o pupils and a hostel or almshouse for women with 200 inmates. Leningrad (St. Petersburg) and Mos cow have established labour homes or colonies, where the inhab itants work at basket and brush making and the pasting of paper bags. They are given free quarters and small wages. The whole control is in the hands of a committee of the blind. A college of music is in existence where blind soldiers are trained as cinema and concert performers, where they are paid at "standard rates." The largest library in Russia contains about 3,00o volumes. The only press for Braille books is in Moscow where work is done on three small hand presses of a primitive kind. Braille typewriters have not been introduced, and there is a scarcity of handframes. A Pan-Russian union of the blind has been established to work in co operation with the Government for the betterment of conditions.
Spain.—The most efficient of the organizations for the benefit of the blind in Spain is the Centro Instrutivo y Protector de Ciegos, a private institution founded in Madrid in 1894. The directors are blind; general care is taken of the 1,000 blind persons in Madrid; elementary education and instruction in music are given to about 35o boys and girls; a circulating library of em bossed books was started in 1907; a small workshop for men and women engaged in brush and broom making and saddlery is maintained.
Although more than 200 institutions claim to care for the blind in Spain the majority are general homes and hospitals who make some small special provision for those blind people who happen to enter them.
Officially the care of the blind is the province of the Ministry of Public Instruction, which has established several institutions, the principal being the national college for the deaf and dumb and blind in Madrid founded in 1805, subsidized by the Government, which provides education for over ioo blind pupils from five to 20 years of age. The Ministry of the Interior (Official Charities sec tion) also undertakes the supervision of private institutions for the blind, notably a college for the blind of Santa Catalina de los Donados in Madrid, which dates from the 15th century and pro vides a general education for a small number of pupils between eight and 14 years of age.
The very few soldiers blinded in the Moroccan wars are re-edu cated with other disabled soldiers, and no special provision is made for them.
It is interesting to note that official recognition of the necessity for educating the blind in Spain was not obtained until the latter end of the 19th century when the presentation to the queen of an intelligent and well educated blind girl aroused interest in the pos sible attainments of the blind. Before that date it had been regarded as an unnecessary luxury to train blind people to read.