Training and Welfare of the Blind

BLIND, TRAINING AND WELFARE OF THE. Sec tion 69 of the English Education Act, 1921, defines the word "blind" as meaning "too blind to be able to read the ordinary school books used by children." In 1927 there were 2,554 blind children between the ages of 5 and 16 in England and Wales. Besides these it was estimated that there were nearly 7 ,000 partially-blind children. The total accommodation in schools in England and Wales for blind and partially-blind children is The number of blind children under 5 years of age was 258, and the total number of registered blind persons was 46,822 of whom 31,667 were employable. Statistics show that the number of cases of blindness is on the decrease.

Attempts at Reform.

In 1910, an organization of blind workers, the National League of the Blind, began to direct public opinion to the need for a more systematic solution of the problem than could be secured by the piecemeal action and insufficient re sources of voluntary institutions. The institutions had been in the main opposed to government assistance for the adult blind. The alternative plan, proposed by workshop authorities, was to secure government contracts for brushes, baskets, etc. Contracts were secured, but unfortunately could not be executed except. at a loss. Because of the failure of this line of approach the institution authorities swung round in favour of state assistance.

The number of blind men and women employed in British workshops was only 2,300. About 200 young persons were com pleting their technical training annually, and for these practically no provision was being made. Wages paid were inadequate and, owing to lack of funds, in most institutions little could be added thereto. As far as the days of the Royal Commission on the Blind, 1885, the blind workers had been in favour of a state subsidy of wages in one form or another, but their petitions had gone unheeded. Now the matter came again to the front and, along with the demand for municipal workshops, a measure before Parliament stipulated for an adequate wage. Institutions were thus driven to produce a measure of their own. In December 191 o an attempt was made to bring the two competing measures into line. An agreed bill secured its first reading in May 1914, but it got no further, probably because of the outbreak of war.

The forward step came by another route. W. Wardle, Labour M.P. for Stockport, initiated in March 1914 a debate on the conditions of the blind. In May the government set up a mental committee "to consider the present condition of the blind in the United Kingdom, and the means available for (a) their industrial and professional ing and (b) their assistance, and to make recommendations." The committee's report was lished in Aug. 1917 and tained a suggestion that a central authority should be set up "in the Ministry of Health, ever such a ministry should be created, and in the meantime in the Local Government Board, for the general care and supervision of the blind." This central thority was to have funds vided by the Exchequer and to be guided as to policy by an advisory committee.

Grants and Pensions.—In August 1919 the Ministry of Health issued regulations explain ing the services in respect of which grants would be paid. In 1921-2 the grants paid totalled £69,886, while in 1926-7 the total had increased to LI12,51o. In 1920 the Blind Persons Act was passed. This provided in Section 1 for the grant of Old Age Pensions to blind persons at the age of 5o instead of at the age of 7o. Section 2 places .a duty on local authorities to promote the welfare of blind persons, ordinarily resident in their area. They are given power to provide and maintain or contribute towards the provision and maintenance of workshops, hostels, homes or other places for the reception of blind persons, and, with the approval of the Minister of Health, to do such other things as may appear to them desirable for the purpose. Section 3 provides for the registration of charities for the blind. Local authorities have gradually increased their contributions towards this service since 192o. The amount was £14,671 in 1921-2 while for 1926-7 it was £173,828. In 1927 there were 17,232 registered blind persons in England and Wales between the ages of 5o and 7o, and no less than 84 per cent were in receipt of an old age pension. The Public Health Act of 1925 gave local authorities further powers for measures for the prevention of blindness.

The World

War.—During the years 1914-18 more than io,000 soldiers and sailors lost their sight on active service. To this total the British Commonwealth contributed nearly 2,000, and Germany 3,000. In Britain these blinded men were cared for at St. Dunstan's in London, and Newington House in Edinburgh. There they were given fresh hope and were taught useful occu pations. In Germany, an effort was made to find occupation for them in particular sections of industry. Messrs. Siemens led the way, and about 45o were employed at the close of 1925.

Education.

The first state action in England and Wales towards the education of the blind was taken in 1885, when a Royal Commission was appointed to consider the condition of the blind. The commission reported in 1889 and its report resulted in the passing of the Elementary Education (Blind and Deaf Chil dren) Act, 1893. This Act provided for the compulsory attend ance at school of all blind children between the ages of 5 and 16.

Blind children under 5 years of age are eligible for admission to one of the three nursery schools or "Sunshine Homes," estab lished by the National Institute for the Blind at Chorley Wood, Southport and Leamington. From 5 to 16 years of age they are admitted to day and residential schools for the blind. There are two secondary schools, one for blind boys at Worcester, and one for blind girls at Chorley Wood. Students are trained at the Royal Normal College for the Blind, Upper Norwood, London, for the careers of school-teachers, musicians and typists. There are about 30o teachers engaged in teaching blind children in special schools.

After the age of 16 the blind are provided with further educa tion and training. The responsibility for this training is placed by the Education Act, 1921, on the local education authority for higher 'education, namely, a county or county borough council. Section 2 (6) of the Blind Persons Act, 1920, provides that the local education authority shall secure adequate and suitable pro vision for the technical education of blind persons, ordinarily resident within their area, who are capable of receiving and being benefited by such education. Only those blind persons are admis sible on the completion of their training to workshops for the blind who are "too blind to perform work for which eyesight is essential" (Blind Persons Act, 1920). In 1927 there were students over 16 years of age in training in vocational courses held throughout the country. Students between 16 and 21 years of age, as well as being taught a trade, receive instruction in general subjects, commercial knowledge, singing, physical educa tion and hygiene. The period of training may occupy from 2 to 4 years according to the trade. Vocational training is available for older blind persons who have become blind after leaving school.

Scotland.

The welfare of the blind in Scotland is similar to that in England and Wales. On April 1, 1927, there were known blind persons in Scotland, of whom 34o were of or under school age. In 1926-27 grants were paid by the Scottish Board in respect of services provided for the welfare of the blind amounting to £16,033/15/0.

France.

The education of blind children in France is com pulsory. The Education Act of 1882 stipulated that a standing order of the administration publique should settle the special con ditions under which blind children should be educated. There is a National Institution in Paris which accommodates 230 boys and girls. This is State supported with some help from local authorities. There are a number of schools maintained by the Departments of Loire, Nord and Seine, and by the city of Lyons, and 26 private schools not under the control of the State. The age of admission of blind children to the schools varies from 3 to 10 years.

Denmark.

The care of the blind in Denmark was begun in 1811 when a private institution was founded. In 1858 this institu tion was taken over by the Government. There are schools for primary and technical education and these are State aided.

Spain.

Education of blind children in Spain is not compul sory. Only one blind school, the National College for the Deaf and Blind, in Madrid, is maintained by the State. There are two other schools in Madrid and these are maintained by the City authorities. Some blind schools are maintained in various places by provincial authorities, others by cities, and others by private societies. In the National College in Madrid the period of instruction is from 6 to 16 years of age.

Hungary.

Education of the blind is compulsory. Children are admitted to school at the age of 5. From 14 to 25 uneducated blind persons are admitted into schools for the young blind, but over the age of 25 they are sent to schools for the blind where they receive trade instruction.

Italy.

The education of blind children has been compulsory by law for years, but the law was not carried out by anyone until under the present Fascist Government, it was re-enacted on Dec. 31, 1923. Instruction is given as far as possible in institutions for the blind, but blind children can, if desired, enter schools for seeing children, unless they are mentally defec tive. Institutions whose activities are mainly educational have gradually passed from the care of the Ministry of the Interior to that of the Ministry of Public Education. Blind schools are maintained partly by the Provinces and Communes and partly by money from charitable sources. The age of admission is generally 6 and the period of instruction usually lasts for io years. There are institutions for the blind at Torino, Milan, Trieste, Rome, Naples, etc.

Switzerland.

The education of the blind is not compulsory, and is not maintained by the public authorities, but only by private charity, with the exception of the Cantonal school at Zurich. Blind children are usually admitted from the age of 6 years.

Finland.—Education of blind children is compulsory in schools directed and maintained by the State. Children are admitted to school at 8 years of age, the highest age of admission being I 1 years. Pupils usually remain at school for 1 o years. Training establishments for the blind are provided and maintained by the society Das Blindas Vanner (Friends of the Blind), which receives a yearly grant from the State.

Czecho-Slovakia.

From 1869 when Czecho-Slovakia still formed part of the Austrian monarchy, education of blind chil dren has been compulsory. Schools are maintained by the State and municipal authorities as well as by private endowment. The age of admission to schools is from 3 to 6 years. After the school period, trades are taught.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--T. R.

Armitage, The Education and Employment of Bibliography.--T. R. Armitage, The Education and Employment of the Blind, an historical survey of methods of educating and training (i886) ; W. H. Illingworth, History of the Education of the Blind (1910) ; Ben Purse, The Blind in Industry.

The United States.

Official provision is made for the educa tion of the blind in the United States. After 21 years of agitation a bill to promote such education was passed in 1879 when the Federal Government appropriated $10,000 annually for printing embossed books to be distributed to State schools; which ap propriation was increased in 1927 to $75,00o. Each State Govern ment holds itself financially responsible to place its blind either in its State school, of which there are 39 in the country, or to place blind children in outside institutions at its expense. Great progress has been made.

The first school for the blind in the United States was founded in Boston, Mass., chiefly through the efforts of Dr. John D. Fisher, a young physician. It was incorporated in 1830, and in honour of T. H. Perkins (1764-1854) who gave his mansion to the institu tion, was named the Perkins Institution and Massachusetts Asy lum (now School) for the Blind. Aid was granted by the State from the beginning. In 1831 Dr. Samuel G. Howe (q.v.) was ap pointed director. and held that position for nearly 44 years, being succeeded by his son-in-law Michael Anagnos (d. 1906), who established a kindergarten for the blind at Jamaica Plain, in con nection with the Perkins Institution. One of Dr. Howe's most notable achievements was the education of Laura Bridgman (q.v.) who was deaf, dumb and blind, and this has since led to the education of Helen Keller and other blind deaf-mutes. The New York institution was incorporated in 1831, and the Pennsyl vania institution was founded at Philadelphia by the Society of Friends in 1833. The Ohio institution was founded at Columbus in 1837, the Virginia at Staunton in 1839, the Kentucky at Louisville in 1842, and the Tennessee at Nashville in 1844. The Pennsyl vania Institution at Overbrook, Pa., and the Perkins Institution, Watertown, Mass., were pioneers in making provision for chil dren of kindergarten age.

Readers for the blind desirous of university education are pro vided in nine States, beginning with New York State in 19o7, and Missouri in 1913, where $3oo per annum is expended for each student. The training of teachers for work with the blind is en couraged and in 1921 Harvard University Graduate School of Education opened a course for them. Since then eight other universities and colleges have opened similar courses. Day school classes where blind children are taught to participate in regular work with other children, are conducted in States. They were first established in Chicago in 19oo, followed by Cincinnati, gos, and Milwaukee, 1907. New York and Cleveland instituted them in 1909, since when they have spread over the country.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.-0. H. Burritt, Tendencies in Work for the Blind in Bibliography.-0. H. Burritt, Tendencies in Work for the Blind in America in the Twentieth Century, and What the National Government is Doing for the Blind and What More It Ought To Do (1914) ; Edward E. Allen, Progress of Education of the Blind in the United States (Reports to the Commissioner of Education, /913 and 1915) ; R. B. Irwin, Sight-Saving Classes in the Public Schools (Harvard Bul letins in Education, 192o) ; Louis Resnick and Lewis H. Carris, Pro gram for State Activity in Prevention of Blindness (1924) ; R. R. French, The Education of the Blind (California School for the Blind 1924-25) ; Conserving the Sight of School Children (Report of Joint Committee of N.E.A., A.M.A. and N.C.P.B., 1925) ; Lewis H. Carris, "National Work for the Conservation of Vision" (Reprinted from The Journal of Medicine, 1927).