Administrative Organization of Broadcasting

ADMINISTRATIVE ORGANIZATION OF BROADCASTING It has been indicated that there are two main types of organi zation handling public broadcasting; the commercial and com petitive type and the centralized public-service type; and that the former type tends steadily to approximate to the latter so far as concerns its relation with the public. The same may be said, to a certain extent, of the administration and public-relation side of broadcasting. Given the immense cultural, educational, politi cal and propagandist possibilities of the medium, it was un thinkable that Governments should disinterest themselves in the programmes. Accordingly we find control, to a greater or less degree, universally imposed on broadcasting. Under a crude commercial system, this control is slight and negative ; while, at the other end of the scale, a despotic or dictatorial Government is inevitably tempted to employ broadcasting for the propagation of its own ideas. Between these extremes lie (a) "goodwill" com mercial broadcasting tempered by Government regulation, as in the United States since 1927; (b) systems constituted as com mercial companies, but subjected to the continuing supervision of a Government department, and limited as to profits; (c) com panies commercial in form, in which the Government holds a controlling interest, as in Germany, Austria and Czechoslovakia ; and (d) organizations of the type of the British Broadcasting Corporation or the Danish radio council in which a national broadcasting authority is constituted by, but stands apart from, the ordinary machinery of, the State. The success of an organiza tion of the last type depends essentially upon the public's accord ing to its executives and its traditions a confidence that is independent of its political outlook towards the Government of the day; hence it has usually been instituted as the result of prior experience, successful or unsuccessful, of other forms, and not at the outset.

The executive or internal organization of broadcasting is very similar in all countries, but there is one important divergence of practice that should be mentioned. In some countries the engi neering side of the work is wholly in the hands of the State tele graph authority, and the broadcasting organization as a distinct body is limited to the provision and execution of the programmes. In others the engineer service is as much a part of the broad casting organization as are the programme and the administrative departments. That the question is not a simple one may be gauged from the fact that of the two most highly-developed services in Europe the one works under the first and the other under the second system. In the British view there are many factors, such as engineer interest in the details of studio acous tics and management on the one hand and artistic interest in the control of modulation on the other, that make it undesirable for any hard and fast line to be drawn between the two sides of the work.

In most countries broadcasting organizations derive their rev enue from the yield of the licence fees paid to the postal authori ties in respect of listening sets, a share of which (varying from 5o% to 90%) is paid over to the broadcasting service. In some countries taxes are levied upon the sale of receiving sets and parts, and most broadcasting organizations derive a small subsidiary rev enue from the issue of programme journals and other publications auxiliary to their work. Elsewhere no charge is made for the possession of receiving sets, and broadcasting is supported either by advertisement or by subsidy from the radio industry. So far as Europe is concerned this system is generally held to be want ing in the indispensable guarantees of regularity, quality and im partiality, and the general tendency is to adopt the pure licence system. In Italy a part of the revenue of the national broadcast ing organization (which is of the British type) is provided from general taxation.

Public Influence and Public Relations.

Certain particular aspects of broadcasting considered as a public service call for brief mention. These are its relations with the organized musical life of the community, its specifically educational (as distinct from its general cultural) mission, its religious role, its news functions and lastly its place in, or by the side of, political life. The opinion may be ventured that the advent of broadcasting has certainly temporarily, and perhaps permanently, arrested a decline which was setting in in the musical life of the European nations owing to a variety of circumstances, amongst them the enhanced costs of ordinary musical performances, the growing popularity of light, showy and ephemeral entertainment, the development of the cinema and the dance hall, and the effectively diminished in comes of the old leisured classes. Broadcasting has not indeed directly checked or altered these tendencies, but it has com pensated them by the universal diffusion of music that a genera tion ago was quite beyond the reach of the masses, by interpret ing that music through its critics, lecturers and journal-contrib utors, and often by performing works that in existing condi tions private promoters cannot afford to mount, either because of the magnitude of the work or because of its relatively small "drawing power" from the commercial point of view.

On its strictly educational side, broadcasting addresses itself to two main classes—the schools, in which listening is "com munal" and the instruction given is amplified by the teacher on the spot, and the adult student, who may be an individual or a member of a study-group. Opinions differ as to the relative im portance of broadcasting in the two cases. In Great Britain, for example, the school side was dealt with first, adult education being a later development, of which the full potentialities can only be realized under a system of "alternative" programmes. In Ger many, on the contrary, adult education took precedence, and a special service with a station of its own was created for its pur poses, while Austria provides courses of very varied kinds, often of an advanced character, in its ordinary programmes. Broad casting is also used for keeping scattered professional men in touch with progress (e.g., country doctors in Poland), for giving primary education to children in mobile homes (e.g., of Dutch bargemen) or scattered outside school range (e.g., Russia). A service of particular value is that of scientific instruction for agriculturists. Languages are taught by nearly all broadcasting organizations, and the radio movement has considerably enhanced public interest in the synthetic or international languages.

The part played by broadcasting in the religious life of the communities varies from country to country according to its creeds, the relations of Church and State, and other factors ; but there are few countries in which it does not exist. In Great Britain a definite policy of broadcasting a simple form of service and addresses without sectarian bias was adopted from the first, agreement having been obtained between the accredited repre sentatives of the chief Christian Churches as to common funda mentals. In countries predominantly Roman Catholic, on the other hand, religious broadcasting has only been accepted with a reserve, though rarely excluded altogether, and in Holland facili ties are shared between the different communions, each being free to propagate its own tenets without regard to the others. More generally fears have been felt that the ability to receive religious services at home would deplete the congregations of the Churches themselves. Experience in Great Britain has not justi fied these fears, and any loss to the Churches on this score is more than compensated by the spread of their influence over many hundreds of thousands who do not usually attend their services, as well as by the value of the religious broadcast to invalids and aged persons.

The relation of broadcasting to the press and other sources of public information is necessarily an intimate one. To a certain extent they are competitive, and this fact has created many diffi culties for broadcasters which only time can wholly remove ; but from the wider standpoint of public utility it is easily seen that they are rather mutually complementary than antagonistic. News as transmitted by the broadcaster is brief, oral and non-recorded, and in the nature of things it cannot be surveyed as a page is surveyed by the reader in search of matter that concerns or in terests him. The descriptive broadcasting of races, ceremonies, etc., during the occurrence itself, on the contrary, justifies itself as "actuality" and the news element in it is incidental. It is be tween the spoken and the printed information at second hand that the question here considered lies, and the answer to it is probably that the two services will develop side by side, the role of the former being to relate bare facts in the briefest possible form, and that of the latter to amplify and comment on them.

Broadcasting, which addresses millions in every country nightly by direct speech to the individual in his own home, possesses a wider audience than any section of the press and any part of the older social machinery of communication. This fact has its ad vantages and its dangers. On the one side the leaders of the political and economic life of the community are enabled by it to make sober personal touch with the people without intermedi aries and thus it constitutes a means of civic integration un paralleled since the days of the Greek city-state ; on the other side, the temptation to direct the machinery with a bias is cor respondingly great. At first, therefore, the general practice in countries where broadcasting is centrally controlled was to ex clude all controversial matters (other than Government state ments, broadcast as such without involving the broadcaster's responsibilities towards his public). Experience, however, has shown that this negative neutrality is insufficient and incompati ble with the high role of broadcasting as well as with the modern conception of citizenship, and opinion tends more and more to the view that the treatment of controversial subjects (under proper safeguards as to impartiality and moderation) is a proper and necessary part of the function of a broadcasting service.

See J. C. W. Reith, Broadcasting over Britain (1924) ; B. B. C. annual publications since 1927; and relevant Parliamentary Papers, Cmd. i,951, Comd. 2,599, Cmd. 5,822, Cmd. 2,756. U. C. W. R.) In the United States broadcasting has been developed by pri vate enterprise, with a minimum of Government supervision. This freedom from restraint, while at times giving rise to unsatis factory conditions, has encouraged competition and has doubtless been an important factor responsible for the rapid growth which has taken place. There is complete absence of any restriction or hindrance to the ownership and use of receiving apparatus, in that no licences are required and there are no fees to be paid. Since there is no financial support for the broadcasting of pro grammes derived directly from the listeners through the payment of a fee, other and less direct sources of support have been relied upon. Private enterprise has been forced to find its own means of economic justification and this has added a further element of competitive effort to the development of the industry.

The first experimental attempts at the broadcasting of music by radiotelephony were made in the United States as early as 1916, notably by Dr. Lee De Forest. Further experiments by others, particularly in 1919-2o, led to the establishment in 192o of the first broadcasting stations for commercial exploitation of the new idea. One of the earliest and most successful of these stations was KDKA at East Pittsburgh, Pa., owned by the West inghouse Electric and Manufacturing Company. The popular in terest engendered in the territory around Pittsburgh by the broad casting of presidential election returns, and subsequently of musical programmes, made evident the possibilities of profit in the manufacture and sale of receiving equipment. This has subse proved to be one of the two major sources of financial support for broadcasting activities in America.

The fame attained by the organizations operating the first broadcasting stations, as a result of popular interest in the novelty, brought clearly into view the second major source of financial support, viz., the realization of valuable advertising by the broad caster. This was something which appealed not merely to manu facturers of electrical apparatus but to business men in general. Commercial Boom.—During the season 1921-22 the sale of radio receiving sets and of component parts for use in home con struction of sets began a "boom" which was followed immediately by a big increase in transmitting stations. A classification made in February 1923 shows that about half the stations licensed up to that time were associated with radio or electrical concerns. Next in importance came educational and religious institutions, newspapers and publications, and department stores. The greatest mortality rate was among stations operated by radio and elec trical concerns. This indicated the effect of the advertising idea in broadcasting. More powerful stations, sending better pro grammes, were being financed by organizations not profiting from the sale of receiving equipment.

Station WEAF was established in New York by the American Telephone and Telegraph Company for the purpose of offering broadcasting facilities on a time rental basis to all who wished to broadcast. The radio channels had become so crowded by sta tions that it was difficult for any more to find adequate places. Also there were many interests which desired to broadcast their own special programmes but did not wish to go into the project so deeply as to invest in a station equipment. Sponsored pro gramme broadcasting, as instituted in this way, was clearly based on advertising value, and the definite undisguised use of radio broadcasting for advertising purposes was started.

Interconnection of Stations.

The first use of wire tele phone lines in 1922 for interconnecting a station in New York and a station in Chicago, to broadcast simultaneously a descrip tion of a football game, introduced a new idea into radio broad casting. The popular interest was then running largely toward receiving distant stations.

The use of a long-distance telephone line to bring pro grammes of special interest into the field of local reception simultaneously at a number of places was of evident value in broadcasting features of national appeal. It was of both eco nomic and cultural importance. Performances by leading artists at a centrally located station studio could he sent out to other stations. Smaller stations could afford to offer programmes, ob tained by wire, of much greater excellence than those they could produce for themselves. A regular interchange of programmes by wire was initiated between WEAF in New York and WCAP in Washington, D.C., and subsequently other stations were added to the "chain." For special features of national importance large groups of stations were temporarily interconnected.

While many programmes could be performed in a studio, there were orchestra concerts, political meetings, athletic contests and the like which, by their very nature, could not be transferred to a studio. Telephone wires were brought into use for carrying such programmes from the microphones at the sources to the broad casting stations and to the central offices, from which they could be despatched by wire to other stations.

Shortly after broadcasting became established on the wave lengths around 30o to 400 metres it was discovered that much shorter wavelengths, in the range from 15 to 5o or 6o metres, could be received over very long distances. The use of these waves has been developed not only for intercontinental radio telegraph and telephone services but also for the broadcasting of pro grammes directly to other countries or for the exchange of programmes between national networks by radio relay on short waves. Some of the larger American broadcasting stations have auxiliary short wave transmitters upon which their programmes are also radiated to reach greater distances either domestic or foreign.

Receiving Sets.

The first broadcast receivers were crystal detector or regenerative vacuum tube sets, the listening being done through telephone headsets. The next steps were to the high frequency amplifier type of radio receiver, which eliminated the objectionable interfering squeals and whistles of the regenera tive type, and to the use of crude loud-speakers which permitted listening with greater comfort and freedom. The batteries required in earlier sets for operation of the vacuum tubes were a source of expense and inconvenience which passed with the develop ment of "battery eliminators" and "power packs" which per mitted deriving the necessary tube power supply from the ordinary lamp socket or base-board outlet. Unified sets including the re ceiver circuit, power pack and improved loudspeakers, all in one harmonious cabinet design, characterized the emergence of radio equipment from its early unsightly stage to a permanent ac ceptance as part of the average home facilities. At the same time there was a gradual shift to the superheterodyne type of receiv ing circuit. Attention was then concentrated by engineers and manufacturers on improvements in performance. Widening of the frequency range of response has resulted in higher fidelity repro duction and the inclusion of automatic volume control, tone compensation devices, tuning indicators and the like have over come many of the limitations of earlier sets.

The development of world-wide broadcasting on short waves and the attempts on the part of many foreign stations to make their programmes attractive to American listeners have resulted in the development of the "all wave" receiver which not only is capable of receiving foreign stations but also permits the curious listener to eavesdrop on police, aeronautical and other commer cial radio transmitters not provided with privacy apparatus. There is also a tendency to include in some newer sets provision for receiving ultra short waves below 1 o metres.

The Position of the Government.

When broadcasting be came important there were in force, in the United States, the Lon don International Radiotelegraph Convention and two other Federal laws, all framed, eight years before, in 1912. These aimed primarily at regulating the maritime use of radiotelegraphy, par ticularly at promoting safety of life at sea. The administration of national radio affairs relating to commercial stations was en trusted to the Department of Commerce, and the secretary of Commerce was given certain power to make regulations. But the extent to which the law gave the Executive Department of the Government authority was not clear.

In order to obtain advice as to the problems needing Govern ment action, the secretary of Commerce, Herbert Hoover, en deavoured to bring those interested into accord through the agency of a series of general conferences of which the first was held Feb. 27-28, 1922. At this time there were only about 50 licensed broadcasting stations. By the time of the Second National Radio Conference, March 2o-24, 1923, the number had risen to about 55o. These stations were crowded together into narrow wave bands, and conditions of interference had become intolerable. The conference divided itself into committees which brought forth recommendations dealing with such matters as increasing the fre quency band allocated to broadcasting to include all the range from 55o to 135okc. (wave-length, 545-222m.), the classification of stations in regard to the quality of service rendered, and the establishment of a geographical zoning basis for frequency as signments to reduce interference. The Department of Commerce put into force regulations which broadly carried out the recom mendations of this conference.

The stage of development of broadcasting and its relation to the Government toward the end of 1924 are well illustrated by the following excerpt from the address of secretary of Commerce Hoover, at the opening of the Third National Radio Conference on Oct. 6 of that year.

"Radio has passed from the field of an adventure to that of a public utility. We have, in fact, established an entirely new communication system, national in scope. At the end of f our years, S3o (stations) are in operation, making radio available to every home in the country. The sales of radio apparatus have increased from a million dollars a year to a million dollars a day. It is estimated that over 200,000 men are now employed in the industry and the radio audience probably exceeds 20 millions of people." At this conference the frequency band available for broadcast ing was widened to 550–I,5ookc. (wave-length, This gave a total of 96 channels each iokc. wide, of which six were by co-operative agreement assigned to the exclusive use of Canadian stations. The largest transmitting sets in common use had an output of 500 watts but the advantages of increasing power were being recognized.

The conference recommendations cleared the way for the use of greater power. Stations of 5 to 1okw. were established during the following year and at least two stations (KDKA and WGY) were experimenting with still higher powers.

The desire to broadcast caused such pressure towards increas ing the number of stations on already overcrowded channels that when the Fourth National Radio Conference met on Nov. 9–I1, 1925, the need for limiting the number of stations to be licensed was one of the principal matters discussed. In spite of the rec ommendations of the conference against the granting of new licences and the attempts of the Department of Commerce to find a means of permitting more stations to be operated, dissatis faction of those unable to obtain suitable arrangements increased, until the situation was precipitated by a Chicago station, which, without authority, began to use one of the channels allocated to Canada.

The Department of Commerce brought suit in the courts and lost, it being held that the department had no authority to deny licences or to enforce frequency assignments. While the large majority of stations continued to abide by the rulings of the department a number of stations, popularly called "wave jump ers," proceeded to select waves which suited them and to operate on these waves.

Act of 1927.

The chaotic conditions brought about by wave jumping hastened legislative action and the Radio Act of 1927 became a law on Feb. 23, 1927. This act took the responsibility of licensing stations from the secretary of Commerce and placed it in the hands of a Federal Radio Commission of five men ap pointed by the President. Appeal from the decisions of the com mission was to the courts. The commission was given rather broad powers to classify and license stations; to assign operating frequencies; to determine locations and operating times and pow ers of stations; to establish areas of service; to make regulations to prevent interference; to regulate chain broadcasting stations; to hold hearings, summon witnesses and compel production of documentary evidence. The licensing authority need grant a licence only "if public convenience, interest and necessity will be served thereby." This put a stop to the unchecked increase in the number of stations which followed the Department of Commerce's defeat in the courts.

In 1928 an amendment to the Act of 1927, requiring equality in assignment of broadcasting rights to the five geographical zones into which the country was divided. made necessary a revision of station assignments. Perhaps the most important feature of this revision was the establishment of a group of "clear channels" each of which was assigned to a single high power station to enable it to give the maximum range of service.

Other channels, designated regional channels, accommodate two or more lower power stations in different parts of the country. The number of broadcasting stations dropped from 681 in 1927 to 6o6 in 1929.

International Agreements.

While the regulation of broad casting in the so-called "broadcast band" of S5o to 150o kilocycles is essentially a domestic matter, the fact that transmission on these waves can affect adjacent countries and that transmission on short waves can ,produce interference at great distances has caused certain agreements as to use of waves for broadcasting to be included in the international agreements on radio communi cation to which the United States is a party. These are the International Radio Telegraph Convention of Washington signed in 1927 and the International Telecommunications Convention of Madrid signed in 1932. An agreement on division of channels with Canada was reached through diplomatic channels by an exchange of notes in 1932.

Communications Act of 1934.

On July 1, 1934 there was established by Act of Congress a "Federal Communications Com mission" of seven men to deal not only with matters of national broadcast regulation but also with interstate and foreign telephone and telegraph communication by wire and radio. The Commis sion is divided into three divisions of which one, called the "Broadcast Division," carries on substantially the functions previ ously exercised by the Federal Radio Commission which the new Communications Commission superseded.

A recent trend in broadcast regulation has been to permit ex perimental operation with increased transmitter power, in one case up to Soo kilowatts, and with increased band width to give high fidelity transmission. There has also been a tendency to per mit increase in the number of low power stations operating on regional channels. The total number of stations was 629 on Sep ..

Lemoer High powered American stations operate in the same general frequency band with lower powered stations. There is nothing analogous to the European stations operating at lower frequencies (longer wave-lengths).