BRITISH COLUMBIA, the western province of the Dominion of Canada. It is bounded on the east by the watershed in the Rocky Mountains until this, in its north-westerly course, reaches the meridian 120° W., which is followed north to 6o° N., thus including within the province a part of the Peace river country east of the mountains. The southern boundary is formed by
N. and the straits separating Vancouver Island from the State of Washington. The northern boundary is 6o° N., the western the Pacific ocean, upon which the province fronts for about 600m., and the coast strip of Alaska for a further doom. Vancouver Island and the Queen Charlotte Islands, as well as the smaller islands lying off the western coast of Canada, belong to the province of British Columbia.
British Columbia is almost wholly moun tainous. It comprises nearly the whole width of the western mountain-belt of North America, between the parallels of latitude above indicated, including the Rocky Mountains proper on the east and the coast range on the west. Between these are other ranges to which various local names have been given, as well as the interior plateau—a hilly country, with summits having an accordant elevation east of the Coast Range. The several ranges, having been produced by foldings parallel to the border of the Pacific ocean, have a common trend S.E. to N.W. Vancouver Island and the Queen Charlotte Islands are parts of still another fold parallel to the coast, but largely submerged.
The Rocky mountains are composed chiefly of palaeozoic sedi ments from Cambrian to. Carboniferous, with subordinate in folded areas of Cretaceous which hold coal. The average height of the range along the United States boundary is 8,000 ft., but the range culminates between the latitudes of 5r° and 53°, in Mt. Robson, 13,068f t., and Mt. Alberta, in Alberta province, 13,500f t. ; Mt. Fairweather in south Alaska is 1 5, 28 7 f t. Passes include the South Kootenay or Boundary pass, 7, i oof t. ; the Crow's Nest pass, 5,5ooft. (this is traversed by the Canadian Pacific railway and crosses great coal fields) ; the Kicking Horse or Wapta pass, 5,3ooft. (traversed by the main line of the Canadian Pacific rail way) ; the Athabasca pass, 6,02 5f t. ; the Yellow Head pass, 3 , 733f t. (used by the Canadian National railway) ; the Pine River pass, 2,850f t. ; and the Peace River pass, 2,000f t., through which the Peace river flows.
The Coast or Cascade Range borders the Pacific coast for 900m., and its partially submerged transverse valleys give ex cellent harbours and deep sounds and inlets of extraordinary beauty. At the head of Knight Inlet, Lat. 51° 2 2' N., Long. 125° 16' W., Mt. George Dawson is the highest point in British Colum bia (13 , 26of t.) . The coast is fringed with innumerable islands, of which Vancouver Island and the Queen Charlotte Islands are the largest. Along the south-west side of the Rocky Mountains is a very remarkable valley of considerable geological antiquity, in which run some seven of the great rivers of the Pacific slope, among them the Kootenay, Columbia, Fraser and Finlay. This valley, I to 6m. wide, can be traced continuously for at least Boom. The Fraser, rising in the Rocky Mountains, flows for a long dis tance to the north-west and then, turning south, eventually crosses the Coast Range by a deep canyon and empties into the Strait of Georgia, a few miles south of the city of Vancouver. The Columbia, which rises farther south in the same range, flows north for about I 5om. and then, bending abruptly back upon its former course, flows south through the Arrow Lakes in the Kootenay country into the United States, emptying into the Pacific ocean at Astoria in the state of Oregon. In the north western part of the province the Skeena flows south-west into the Pacific, and still farther to the north the Stikine rises in British Columbia, but before entering the Pacific crosses the coast strip of Alaska. The Liard, rising in the same district, flows eastwards and falls into the Mackenzie, which empties into the Arctic ocean. The headwaters of the Yukon are also situated in the northern part of the province. All these rivers are swift and frequently interrupted by rapids, so that, as means of com munication, they are of little if any value ; on the other hand there are in the province almost unlimited potentialities for water power.
At an early stage in the Glacial period British Columbia was covered by the Cordilleran ice-sheet, which moved south-east and north-west in correspondence with the ruling features of the country, from a gathering-ground about the 57th parallel. Ice poured through passes in the coast ranges, and to a lesser extent debouched upon the edge of the great plains, beyond the Rocky Mountain range. The great valley between the coast ranges and Vancouver island was also occupied by a glacier that moved in both directions from a central point in the vicinity of Valdez island. The effects of this glacial action have bearings on the dis tribution and character of the gold-bearing alluviums of the province.
There are strong contrasts in respect both of rain fall and of temperature between the coast and the interior plateau, and, as regards rainfall on the coastlands, between places shel tered and unsheltered from wet westerly winds. Thus at Victoria, at the south end of Vancouver island, the mean annual rainfall amounts to 27.65in., but this place is sheltered by the heights of the island to the west. At Agassiz, on the narrow coastal plain of the Fraser river, the mean is 65.34in.: at both these stations the wettest months are in winter. At Kamloops in the south-central part of the province (r , 1 93f t. above sea-level) the main annual rainfall is barely over loin.; the maximum is in June, but in the later summer this division is definitely dry, with vegetation, ex cept along the waterways and at the higher elevations, charac teristic of an almost arid region. The mean monthly temperature ranges from 39°F. in January to 60° in July and August at Vic toria, 34° in December to 69° in July at Agassiz, and 22° in January to 63° in July and August at Kamloops. At Atlin in the far north, eastward of the Coast Range, there is a mean temper ature range from o° in January to 54° in July; and a mean annual rainfall similar to that of Kamloops (ro•89in.) ; on the other hand in the Prince Rupert and coastal district, the rainfall reaches 95in. or more.
Among the larger mammals are the big-horn or mountain sheep (Ovis canadensis), the Rocky Mountain goat (Mazarna montana), the grizzly bear, moose, woodland caribou, black-tailed or mule deer, and coyote. All these are to be found only on the mainland. The black and brown bears, wolves, lynx, wapiti and Columbian or coast deer occur on both mainland and islands. About 34o species of birds are known in the province, in cluding the burrowing owl of the dry interior, the American magpie, Steller's jay and a true nut-cracker, Clark's crow (Pici corvus Columbianus). True jays and orioles are also well repre sented. The gallinaceous birds include the large blue grouse of the coast, replaced in the Rocky Mountains by the dusky grouse. The western form of the spruce partridge of eastern Canada is also abundant, together with several forms referred to the genus I3onasa, generally known as partridges or ruffed grouse. Ptarmi gans also abound in many of the higher mountain regions. Geese, brant and many sorts of duck are numerous.
The area of British Columbia is 355,855sq.m. and its population by the census of 193r was 694,263. The population roughly trebled in the first quarter of this century, at first by the influx of miners and others, consequent upon the discovery of precious metals in the Kootenay, Boundary and Atlin districts; and later by the establishment of a settled population through the opening up of the valleys by railways and motor roads, and new lines of steamboats, mainly in the south. The population is predominantly white. There is a con siderable Chinese population, and 61,302 entered the country between 1901 and 1934. Chinese immigration has, however, been forbidden by law since 1923, and was previously much reduced by the tax, rising in amount, imposed per head from 1885 on wards, owing to the objection felt by the white population to the entry of "Mongolians." Many Japanese have also come in : they are engaged chiefly in lumbering and fishing, and do not appear to be so much disliked as the Chinese, as they adapt themselves to the ways of white men, but they are equally objected to on the score of cheap labour; and in 1907-08 considerable friction occurred with the Dominion Government over the anti-Japanese attitude of British Columbia, which was shown in some rather serious riots. Since that time Japanese immigration has been restricted by agreement with the Japanese Government. In the census of 1921 the Indian population was returned at 22,377, largely Christian. The Indians are divided into very many tribes, but fall naturally on linguistic grounds into a few large groups. There is no treaty with the Indians of British Columbia, as with those of the plains, for the relinquishment of their title to the land, but the government otherwise assists them. There is an Indian superintendent at Victoria, and under him are agencies throughout the province to attend to the Indians—relieving their sick and destitute, supplying them with seed and implements, settling their disputes and administering justice. The Indian fishing stations and burial grounds are reserved, and other land has been set apart for them for agricultural and pastoral pur poses. A number of schools have been established for their education. The chief cities are Victoria, the capital, on Vancouver Island ; Vancouver and North Vancouver on the mainland, New Westminster on the Fraser and Nanaimo on Vancouver Island, Nelson in West Kootenay, Prince Rupert at the mouth of the Skeena river ; Kamloops and Fernie in East Kootenay are also places of importance.
Mining.—Mining is one of the chief industries of British Columbia. The mining output has increased from $4,225,717 in 1 894 to $67,758,400 in 1926. Gold was at first the most im portant mineral. Since 1899 placer mining has increased con siderably, after a decline following the high production of the first few years, but the greater part of the return has been from lode mining. Rossland, Boundary and Kootenay districts are the chief centres of vein-mining yielding auriferous and cupriferous sulphide ores, as well as large quantities of silver-bearing lead ores. Gold has lately fallen to sixth place in annual value, the most valuable metals, in order of importance, being lead, copper, coal, zinc and silver. British Columbia has become the chief copper-producing state in Canada. The metal is worked largely in the coast districts, particularly on the Portland Canal (Anyox) and Howe Sound (Britannia), as well as in the inland areas al ready mentioned. Valuable discoveries of lead, silver and gold have been made in the coastal districts, and much gold and silver are produced near Stewart. There is also mining activity in the country behind Prince Rupert, and in recent years gold has again been recovered from the Cariboo and Cedar Creek areas where it was originally discovered. The mining laws are liberal, and, being based on the experience gained in the adjacent mining centres of the Western States, are convenient and effective. Among the most important smelting and reducing plants are those at Trail in the West Kootenay country, and at Anyox. There are also numerous concentrating plants. The province contains enor mous supplies of excellent coal, largely untouched. It is chiefly of cretaceous age. The producing collieries are chiefly on Van couver Island and on the western slope of the Rockies near the Crow's Nest pass. There are immense beds of high-grade bitu minous coal and semi-anthracite in Northern British Columbia (Skeena Valley, etc.) and mining is developing along the line of the railway to Prince Rupert.
large percentage of the commerce is derived from the sea, the chief product being salmon. The halibut, her ring and cod fisheries are also important, particularly the first, and whaling also is carried on. The chief centres of the salmon industry are the Fraser and Skeena rivers, Queen Charlotte Is lands and Vancouver Island. There are several varieties of salmon, the chief being called sock-eyes, chums, pinks, cohoes and springs; the coarse chum salmon are salted for export to the East. There are some 3o canning companies with 6o canning factories, employing largely Chinese labour, whilst many Japanese and Indians are engaged in the fisheries. Great Britain is the chief market for British Columbia salmon. Salmon hatcheries have been established on the chief rivers frequented by these fish. Large quantities of fish-oils are extracted from several species of dog-fish, whales, pilchards, etc.
The province is rich in forests, and there is a steady demand for its lumber in the other parts of Canada, as well as abroad. Among the most important trees are Douglas fir, white and yellow pine, western hemlock, white spruce, Engellmann's spruce, giant cedar, yellow cypress or cedar and western larch. The principal timbers of commerce are the Douglas fir and the spruces; the former is often found 3oof t. high and from 8 to 'oft. in diameter. The wood is tough and strong and is highly valued for ships' spars as well as for building purposes. White pine, hemlock and cedar are also much employed for various purposes. Owing to the scarcity of suitable streams for log transport, the timber is conveyed mostly by special railways or motor tracks, and work is carried on all the year round.
Manufacturing industries developed consider ably during the World War and after. The bulk of the production is from saw-mills and pulp and paper factories, followed by fish curing and packing, electric light and power, and meat-packing. British Columbia possesses very large reserves of water-power on its numerous rivers and in recent years its exploitation has been begun by the erection of hydro-electric plants.
Although mountainous in character, the province contains many tracts of good farming land. These lie in the long valleys between the mountain ranges of the interior, as well as on the lower slopes of the mountains and on the deltas of the rivers on Vancouver Island. Agriculture is now the most valuable industry of the country. Small mixed farming is pre dominant, and the chief crops raised are wheat, oats, clover, po tatoes and other vegetables. Some areas are specially suited for cattle- and sheep-raising, among which may be mentioned the Yale district and the country round Kamloops. The breeding of fur-bearing animals is a growing industry. Much attention has been given to fruit-growing, particularly in the Okanagan valley. Apples, plums and cherries are grown as well as pears, peaches, apricots and various small fruits, notably strawberries. Hops are also cultivated. Beef, dairy produce (especially from the Lower Mainland) and honey are important products.
For the year 1924-25 the total ex ports and imports were valued at $147,531,000 and $66,486,000. The chief exports are minerals, fish and fish products, lumber, grain, fruit, furs, etc.
The Pacific division of the Canadian Pacific rail way enters British Columbia through the Kicking Horse pass on the east and runs for about 5oom. across the province before reaching the terminus at Vancouver, a line wonderfully engi neered through some of the finest scenery in the Dominion. A branch of the same railway leaves the main line at Medicine Hat, and running to the south-west, crosses the Rocky Mountains through the Crow's Nest pass and thus enters British Columbia a short distance north of the United States boundary. This con tinues across the province, running approximately parallel to the boundary as far as Midway in what is known as the Boundary district. The line has opened up extensive coalfields and crosses a productive mining district. On Vancouver Island there are two railways, the Esquimalt and Nanaimo railway (78m.) con necting the coalfields with the southern ports, and the Victoria and Sydney railway, about 16m. in length. The Canadian National railway enters British Columbia over the Yellowhead pass, and follows the upper valley of the Fraser river and then that of the Skeena to Prince Rupert. A line also runs from the Yellowhead pass to Vancouver down the Thompson and Fraser valleys. There is also a number of short lines in the southern portion of the province connecting with lines in the United States. In 1926 there were 5,144m. of railway in the province.
The Canadian Pacific railway company has lines of steamers running from Vancouver and Victoria to (1) China and Japan, (2) Honolulu, New Zealand and Australia, and also to Alaskan ports. Grand Trunk Pacific railway steamers run from Prince Rupert to Seattle, Vancouver, Victoria, Queen Charlotte Islands, Anyox, etc., and there are also boats to San Francisco and from Seattle to Northern Alaska (Nome) .
The province is governed by a lieutenant governor, appointed by the governor-general in council for five years, but subject to removal for cause, an executive council of five ministers, and a single legislative chamber. The executive council is appointed by the lieutenant-governor on the advice of the first minister, and retains office so long as it enjoys the sup port of a majority of the legislature. The powers of the lieuten ant-governor in regard to the provincial government are anal ogous to those of the governor-general in respect of the Dominion government.
The British North America Act (1867) confederating colonies, defines the jurisdiction of the provincial legislature as distin guished from that of the Federal parliament, but within its own jurisdiction the province makes the laws for its own governance. The act of the legislature may be disallowed, within one year of its passage, by the governor-general in council, and is also subject to challenge as to its legality in the supreme court of Canada or on appeal to the juridical committee of the privy council of the United Kingdom. British Columbia sends six senators and 14 members to the lower house of the Federal parliament at Ottawa.
The educational system is under a department of education of the provincial government. The system includes day schools (97954 pupils in 1925), vocational schools (9,7o4 pupils in 1925), Indian schools (2,736 pupils in 1925), the uni versity of British Columbia (1,451 students in 1925), etc. The ordinary day-school has been free to pupils since 1872. The number of pupils receiving secondary education in 1924 was 4,38o boys and 5,509 girls. Vocational courses were introduced into high school curricula in 1905 and the provincial university at Van couver received its charter in 1908. Victoria has a College affili ated to the university and there are a Methodist College at New Westminster, an Anglican Theological College at Vancouver, and a Royal Naval College at Esquimault Finance.—Under the terms of Union with Canada, British Columbia receives from the Dominion government annually a certain contribution, which has been $738,816 for each year from 1921 to 1926. This, with provincial taxes on real property, per sonal property, income tax, sales of public land, timber dues, etc., brought the revenue in the year 1925 to $18,823,358. The ex penditure for the year (including sinking funds taken from capital expenditure) was $20,156,702. The gross debt of the province in 1925 was $91,640,679, with assets of $85,420,187, or a net debt of $6,220,492. These assets do not include new legislative build ings or other public works.
The discovery of British Columbia was made by the Spaniard Perez in 1774. With Cook's visit the geographical exploration of the coast began in 1778. Vancouver, in
surveyed almost the entire coast of British Columbia with much of that to the north and south, for the British Government. The interior, about the same time, was entered by Mackenzie and traders of the North-West Company, which in 1821 became amalgamated with the Hudson's Bay Company. For the next 28 years the Hudson's Bay Company ruled this immense territory with beneficent despotism. In 1849 Vancouver Island was pro claimed a British colony. In 1858, consequent on the discovery of gold on the Fraser river and in the Cariboo district, and the large influx of miners, the mainland territory was erected into a colony under the name of British Columbia, and in 1866 this was united with the colony of Vancouver Island, under the same name. In 1871 British Columbia entered the confederation and became part of the Dominion of Canada. One of the conditions under which the colony entered the dominion was the speedy construction of the Canadian Pacific railway, and in 1876 the non-fulfilment of this promise created strained relations. This was ameliorated when the construction of the road was begun. (See F. B. Thornhill, British Columbia in the Making (1913) ; H. Howard, The Glamour of British Columbia (1926).
