The Brazilian Empire

THE BRAZILIAN EMPIRE The first years of Brazilian independence were difficult. The nation was without experience in self-government and the em peror, though able and patriotic, was inclined to be despotic and arbitrary. When the constituent assembly, on which the nation had pinned such high hopes, proved unmanageable Dom Pedro dissolved it in 1823 and sent the Andrada brothers into exile. For tunately he realized that the days of absolutism were passed; a new and liberal constitution, drawn up by the council of State, was submitted to the municipal councils of the provinces and sworn to with great solemnity by the emperor on March 25, 1824. By this stroke of policy he saved himself and Brazil. The remain ing years of Dom Pedro's reign witnessed a growing estrangement between the monarch and his subjects. Parliamentary govern ment was little to the emperor's liking and the opposition generally commanded a majority in the chamber of deputies. Brazil became involved in a disastrous war with Buenos Aires resulting in the loss of the Provincia Cisplatina (the present republic of Uruguay). Finally, worn out by attacks from both within and without parlia ment, Dom Pedro formally abdicated on April 7, 1831, in favour of the heir apparent, Dom Pedro II., then only five years of age.

The Regency (1831-1840).

The next decade proved the most agitated period in Brazilian history. From 1831 to 1835 a triple regency laboured in vain to put down the Civil War in the prov inces and check the lawlessness and insubordination in the army. In 1834 an important amendment (the so-called Acto Additional) was made to the Constitution. A measure of decentralization was granted the provinces through the creation of provincial assem blies with considerable local power. Provision was made for a sole regent to be elected for four years. For this office in 1835 an able and energetic priest by the name of Diogo Antonio Feijo was chosen. For two years the regent struggled heroically against the force of disintegration, but he was forced to resign in 1837 and was succeeded by Araujo Lima. As the end of the decade ap proached sentiment began to crystallize in favour of a declara tion of majority of the young Dom Pedro. The Brazilians as a whole, impatient with the regency, hoped to find in the person of the emperor a symbol to which the entire nation might rally. On July 23, 1840, both houses of parliament passed a declaration that Pedro de Alcantara had attained his majority.

The reign of Dom Pedro II., with its duration of practically a half century, constitutes perhaps the most interesting and fruit ful epoch in Brazilian history. To an extent true of few mon archies in the 19th century the prestige and progress of the nation were due to the enlightened statesmanship of its ruler. Yet Dom Pedro cared little for the trappings of royalty. Though not with out personal distinction he was always simple, modest and demo cratic. He possessed an insatiable intellectual curiosity and was never more happy than when conversing with scholars. He was generous and magnanimous to a fault. One of his favourite occu pations was inspecting schools. He was wont to declare, "If I were not emperor I should like to be a school teacher." Yet this kindly, genial and scholarly ruler took his prerogatives and duties as sovereign with great seriousness and in all matters of first impor tance he was the final arbiter. According to the constitution of 1824 the emperor had the right to dissolve the chamber of depu ties, to select the members of the life senate from triple lists sub mitted by the province, and to appoint and dismiss ministers of State. That parliamentary life in Brazil was pitched upon such a high plane, that the highest officials in the State generally left office poorer than when they entered it ; that the machinery of government functioned smoothly year after year was due in large measure to the tireless vigilance of the emperor.

Though Dom Pedro was by temperament and conviction a paci fist it was hardly to be expected that Brazil should escape contro versies with its oft-times turbulent Spanish-American neighbours. Twice was the empire forced to intervene in the affairs of the Platine republics. In 1852 Brazil aided in the overthrow of the Argentine tyrant Rosas (q.v.). In the Paraguayan war (see PARA GUAY), which lasted from 1865 to 1870, and was caused by the overwhelming vanity and ambition of the Paraguayan dictator Lopez, Brazil played a role of major importance. With occasional lapses, the relations between the empire and its continental neigh bours and the European Powers were exceedingly cordial. Dom Pedro did much to cement these international friendships and visited Europe in 1876 and 1888 and the United States in 1876.

The outstanding economic and social problems with which the empire had to grapple were connected with the institution of slav ery. Partly as a result of pressure from Great Britain Brazil had agreed to abolish the slave trade in 1831, but it was not until 1853 that this odious traffic completely ceased. In the '6os agita tion began in favour of the abolition of slavery as such. Dom Pedro was opposed to slavery but he had to reckon with the deter mined resistance of the slave owners. Finally in 1871 a bill for gradual emancipation, sponsored by the Viscount of Rio Branco, was passed by parliament. The importance of this act lay in the provision that henceforth all children born of slave mothers should be free. But this concession did not satisfy many of the aboli tionists, who, led by a brilliant young lawyer and writer, Joaquim Nabuco, demanded that abolition be immediate and complete. In 1883 Nabuco wrote a remarkable book (0 Abolicionismo), in which he endeavoured to prove that slavery was poisoning the very life of the nation. The propaganda began to bear fruit. In 1884 Ceara and Amazonas freed their slaves; in 1885 all slaves over 6o years of age were liberated. Finally, complete emancipa tion without compensation to the owners was decreed on May 13, 1888. Some 700,00o slaves, valued at approximately L40,000,000 were freed.

The Collapse of thy Empire.

At first sight the overthrow of Dom Pedro seems inexplicable. Under his wise guidance Brazil had made very real progress. His half century of rule had wit nessed a growth in population from four to 14 millions, a f ourteen f old increase in public revenues and a tenfold increase in the value of the products of the empire. Railroad mileage in 1889 exceeded 5,000; the same year over ioo,000 immigrants landed in Brazil. But despite this impressive economic progress there were grave causes of dissatisfaction. Propaganda in favour of a republic, launched in 1871, had gained many recruits. The great landowners who had lost their slaves without compensation withdrew their support from the monarchy. The clergy, another prop of the throne, had been antagonized by the punishment of several recal citrant bishops. Isabella, the heiress to the throne, and her hus band, the Comte d'Eu, were unpopular. Most serious of all, im portant elements in the army turned against the monarchy, largely because Dom Pedro insisted that they stay out of politics. A con spiracy was hatched by these disgruntled military elements and on Nov. 15, 1889, a revolt of a portion of the army was the signal for the complete collapse of the empire. Dom Pedro formally abdi cated and with his family was banished to Europe.

During the next few years Brazil passed through a difficult period of adjustment. The leader of the revolt against Dom Pedro II. was a prominent military figure, Marshal Deodoro da Fonseca. For the next 14 months Brazil was ruled by a military autocracy in which Deodoro, now chief of the Provisional Government, was virtually supreme. Decisions of great importance were reached. Church and State were separated, civil marriage was introduced, and a constituent assembly was summoned which adopted in 1891 a constitution modelled closely on that of the United States. The chief provisions of this instrument are noted elsewhere in this article.

The Presidencies.

As president, Deodoro employed the same dictatorial methods that he had followed as head of the provisional regime. He kept in power a most unpopular ministry and was constantly at loggerheads with congress. On Nov. 3, 1891, he forcibly dissolved this body and proclaimed himself dictator. But opposition to this coup d'etat was so widespread that on Nov. 23, 1891, he felt constrained to resign in favour of the vice-president, Marshal Floriano Peixoto. But Floriano, likewise one of the con spirators against Dom Pedro, differed little in his methods of government from his predecessor. Of the meaning of constitu tionalism in the strict sense of the term he had scant understand ing. The growing opposition to Floriano finally culminated in 1893 in a naval revolt and military uprising that were put down the following year only with the greatest difficulty.

The vast majority of the Brazilians are naturally averse to militarism, especially when it is accompanied by violence and corruption. The advent, therefore, of a civilian as president was haled with undisguised relief. Prudente de Moraes Barros, who assumed office in 1894, was a distinguished lawyer of Sao Paulo and a republican of long standing. Though his intentions were excellent and his ability and honesty unquestioned, his adminis tration was rendered largely sterile through the opposition of the disgruntled military elements and the necessity of putting down a rebellion of the ignorant and fanatical population in the hinter land of Bahia. His successor Manuel Ferras de Campos Salles (1898-1902), former president of the State of Sao Paulo, is chiefly remembered for his striking success in saving Brazil from the financial collapse threatened by the orgy of extravagance, inflated currency and peculation which had followed the over throw of the monarchy. While still president-elect, Campos Salles in 1898 negotiated through the Rothschilds a funding loan of f interest on which was to be suspended for three years and amortization payments for ten. Thanks to the able and economical administration of Campos Salles and the mar vellous recuperative power of the country, the credit and finances of Brazil were again placed on a sound foundation. Fran cisco de Paula Rodrigues Alves (19o2-06), likewise a Paulista, is generally regarded as Brazil's ablest civilian president. During his term of office the capital was transformed into one of the world's most beautiful cities. Under the direction of the distinguished physician and scientist, Dr. Oswaldo Cruz, Rio was completely freed from the scourge of yellow fever. As noted at the beginning of the present article some of Brazil's most thorny boundary con troversies were settled during the presidencies of Campos Salles and Rodrigues Alves by the able minister of foreign affairs, the Baron of Rio Branco.

The history of Brazil during the two decades, 2906-26 must be summarized very briefly. President Affonso Penna (1906-09) took an important step towards the stabilization of the exchange through the creation of the so-called Caixa de Conversno, or Bank of Conversion, whose function was to redeem inconvertible paper currency through the issue of convertible notes secured through the deposit of gold. Unfortunately this project had to be abandoned on the outbreak of the World War. Dr. Penna died in 1909 and was succeeded by the vice-president, Dr. Nilo Pecanha. The campaign of 1910 was fought with great bit terness. The official candidate, Marshal Hermes da Fonseca, the nephew of Deodoro da Fonseca, was opposed by a civilian, Dr. Ruy Barbosa, a noted lawyer and publicist, and the most eloquent public speaker in Brazil. Though the conviction was general that Dr. Barbosa had received a majority of the votes cast, the official machine easily secured the election of Hermes da Fonseca. The administration of the new president (1910-14) represented a step backward in the political life of Brazil. The high standards set by the first three civilian executives were largely abandoned.

Brazil and the World

War.—Happily a change for the better came with the election of Dr. Wenceslau Braz (1914-18), a for mer governor of Minas Geraes. The administration of President Braz is indissolubly associated with Brazil's reaction to and par ticipation in the World War. From the outset of the struggle the sympathies of the majority of the Brazilians inclined toward the Allies. On April II, 1917, Brazil broke off relations with Germany following the torpedoing of the steamer Paranci off the coast of France. On June z Brazil revoked its decree of neutrality in the war between Germany and the United States as a mark of "con tinental solidarity" and friendship with the United States. Fol lowing the sinking of more Brazilian ships war was declared on Oct. 26. Brazil's participation in the war was confined to the despatch of a part of its fleet to European waters and the sending of a medical mission and a number of aviators to the western front. Brazil's chief contribution, however, was the placing of its food supplies and other resources unreservedly at the disposal of the Allies and the United States. Brazil participated in the Peace Conference and was given a temporary seat on the Council of the League of Nations.

Brazil Since the World War.

In the election of 1918 a new precedent was established in Brazilian political life by the re election of Rodrigues Alves. Unfortunately the new executive was too ill to accept office and died on Jan. 16, 1919. In the new election, held in April, the successful candidate was Dr. Epitacio da Silva Pessoa, a lawyer of note, and head of the Brazilian dele gation at the Versailles Peace Conference. His presidency, coin ciding with the wave of post-war prosperity, was an era of reck less expenditures accompanied by an immense increase in both the internal and foreign debt of Brazil. Large sums were absorbed by the Brazilian Centenary Exposition, which was celebrated with great brilliancy in 1922. The presidency of Dr. Arthur Bernardes (1922-26) was beset with difficulties. The collapse of the post war boom found Brazil in financial extremities. The new executive endeavoured to carry out a policy of strict economy. Governmen tal expenses were cut down, the prosecution of costly public works was postponed, new sources of revenue, such as the income tax, were created. Unhappily the success of this programme of re trenchment and reform was compromised by a dangerous flare up of militarism. In the closing weeks of Dr. Pessoa's administration the political militarists led by Hermes da Fonseca made a des perate but fruitless effort to prevent the inauguration of Dr. Ber nardes. In the summer of 1924 a serious military revolt engi neered by the same disaffected elements that had supported the earlier revolt broke out in the city of Sao Paulo. But the over whelming majority of the Brazilians rallied to support the Gov ernment and the uprising was put down, though not till many lives had been lost and much property destroyed.

In 1926 Dr. Washington Luis Pereira de Souza, who had been minister of justice in the two preceding administrations and had achieved a brilliant record as president of the State of Sao Paulo (192o-24), was elected without a contest. But four years later economic distress combined with the personal rivalries of politi cal leaders brought on a revolution, which established Dr. Getulio Vargas as Provisional President. This administration in turn was opposed by a serious insurrection centring at Sao Paulo but man aged to suppress it with a heavy hand. Vargas retained de facto power until the promulgation of a new constitution, July 16, when he was regularly elected to succeed himself.

Painting, Sculpture and Music.

The Brazilian people have the natural taste for art, music and literature so common among the Latin nations of the Old World. As early as 1816 Dom John VI. invited a company of distinguished French painters, headed by Lebreton, the secretary of the Ecole des Beaux Arts of Paris to take up their residence in Rio de Janeiro and to implant in Brazil the best French artistic traditions. Dom Pedro II. was a liberal patron of art and early in his reign was founded the Academia de Bellas Artes, now known as the Escola Nacional de Bellas Artes. Free instruction in the fine arts is given in this school. Among Brazil's better known painters should be men tioned Pedro Americo de Figueiredo, who specialized in historical and allegorical subjects. In sculpture Rodolpho Bernadelli has done excellent work. A conservatory of music was established as early as 1841. The composer Carlos Gomez (1839-96) enjoyed world-wide fame, his opera, 0 Guarany, having been produced in most of the European capitals. Alberto Nepomuceno (1846-192o) wrote a number of operas which have achieved success both in Brazil and Europe.

Science.

Until recent years scientific exploration and investi gation had been largely conducted by foreigners. Of the scholars who were both explorers and scientists may be mentioned W. L. von Eschwege, J. B. von Spix, C. F. von Martins, Prince Max zu Neuwied, Karl von den Steinen, A. de St. Hilaire, Louis Agassiz and the English botanists A. R. Wallace and H. W. Bates. Geolog ical investigations of immense and lasting value have been carried on by the American scientists Charles Frederick Hartt, Orville A. Derby and John Casper Branner. Among Brazilian scientists may be noted the geographers Homen de Mello, Belfort Mattos and Delgado de Carvalho, and the botanist Joao Barbosa Rodrigues. Scientific explorations of great value have been performed by Gen. Mariano da Silva Randon. Brazilians have achieved notable suc cess in the study of tropical diseases. Dr. Oswaldo Cruz, as noted elsewhere, banished yellow fever from the capital. Dr. Vital Brasil, director of the Butantin Institute near Sao Paulo has been remarkably successful in discovering serums against the bites of venomous reptiles. The Instituto Oswaldo Cruz near Rio and the Pasteur Institute at Sao Paulo afford both Brazilians and foreigners opportunities for the study of tropical diseases.

Literature.

Down to the middle of the 18th century Brazilian literature was naturally dominated by Portugal, for Brazil was in tellectually as well as economically a colony. The 8o years from 175o to 183o may be regarded as a period of transition, during which Brazilian literature gradually acquired an autonomous character. Between 183o and 187o came a period of romantic transformation, when French influence was distinctly in the as cendant. Since 1870 there has come into existence a new school which, distinctly hospitable to foreign influences, is in the broad est sense national.

The three most famous writers of the colonial and transitional periods are Gregorio de Mattos Guerra, Basilio da Gama and Santa Rita Durao. The era of romantic transformation is repre sented by Brazil's greatest lyric poet, Gonsalves Dias. The ro mantic movement also produced the Brazilian novel. Here the outstanding figures are Jose de Alencar, who glorified the Bra zilian Indians (Guarany and Iracema) and Escragnolle de Taunay, whose novel Innocencia has been translated into six foreign languages including the Japanese. The reaction in France against the romantic school had its counterpart in Brazil. Parnassianism included among its votaries the poets Theophilo Dias, Raymundo Correia, Alberto de Oliveira and Olavo Bilac. Naturalism is represented by the novelists Machado de Assis, Aluzio de Azevedo, Julio Ribeiro and Raul Pompeia. Later developments do not readily lend themselves to analysis. In general the emphasis has shifted to national and regional themes. Grata Aranha, in his novel Chaanan, has chosen as his subject the Brazilian melting pot. Euclydes da Cunha, in Os Sertoes, has produced a poignant and arresting study of the hinterland (sertoes) of Bahia. Coelho Netto was a neo-romanticist who drew upon Brazilian history and tradition for the plots of his many novels. Jose Verissimo (1857-1916), Monteiro Lobato, and Sylvio Romero (1851-1914) were brilliant essayists. The last-named writer was also the author of the standard history of Brazilian literature.

In historical literature Brazil has produced a number of writers of high standing. Francisco Adolpho Varnhagen (Visconde de Porto Seguro) is the author of the most authoritative history of the colonial period. Joao Manoel Pereira da Silva has treated especially the critical years from 1822 to 1840. Joao Capistrano de Abreu has produced some short historical studies of great merit. Joaquim Nabuco's (1849-191o) magisterial biography of his father, Nabuco de Araujo, is really a history of the reign of Dom Pedro II. Manoel de Oliveira Lima (1867-1928) has cov ered every 'epoch of Brazilian history. His most notable single work is the history of Dom John's residence in Brazil BIBLIOGRAPHY.—The most satisfactory general work on Brazil is Bibliography.—The most satisfactory general work on Brazil is by H. G. James, Brazil after a Century of Independence (1925) ; Pierre Denis, Brazil (1913) is scholarly but slightly antiquated; J. C. Oakenfull, Brazil, Past, Present and Future (191 9) is an extensive compendium of facts rather poorly organized. The following three works are essentially journalistic in style but contain much material of interest: L. E. Elliott, Brazil, To-day and To-morrow (1919) , Roy Nash, The Conquest of Brazil (1926) and C. S. Cooper, The Brazilians and their Country (1917) ; a number of books dealing with all or parts of South America include valuable sections on Brazil ; such are James Bryce, South America, Observations and Impressions (1920), H. G. James and P. A. Martin, The Republics of Latin America (1925) , Georges Clemenceau, South America of To-day 0910, C. Reginald Enoch, The Republics of Central and South America (1913) , H. C. Franck, Working North from Patagonia (1921) .

History.—There is no general history of Brazil in English. Authori tative brief accounts may be found in James and Martin, The Republics of Latin America, W. S. Robertson, History of the Latin American Nations (1922) and T. C. Dawson, South American Re publics (Iwo). The first two of these works contain detailed bibliog raphies. Important works dealing with specific periods are Robert Southey, The History of Brazil (1810-1819. Colonial period), John Armitage, The History of Brazil from 1818 to 1831 (1836. A con tinuation of Southey), D. P. Kidder and J. C. Fletcher, Brazil and the Brazilians (1879) . This last work is a fascinating account of conditions under the empire. C. E. Akers, A History of South America, 1854-1900 (1912) , has some excellent chapters on the period covered. Practically all of the works of Brazilian historians appear only in Portuguese. Of the exceptions the most important are a scholarly survey of the whole field by M. de Oliveira Lima, Formation Historique de la Nationalite bresilienne (19i I) and an able biography of Isom Pedro II. by B. Mosse, Dom Pedro II., Empereur du Brasil 0889). The following works include sections dealing with the in ternational relations of Brazil: W. R. Manning, Diplomatic Corre spondence of the United States concerning the Independence of the Latin-American Nations (1925), G. H. Stuart, The United States and Latin America (1928), P. A. Martin, Latin America and the War (Baltimore, 1925). The best work on the government of Brazil is H. G. James, The Constitutional System of Brazil (1923). Briefer accounts will be found in James and Martin, Republics of Latin America, and Bryce, South America.

Geography, climate, resources, etc.:—The sections on Brazil in the works of such writers as E. Reclus, Nouvelle Geographie Univer selle (1875-94), A. H. Keane, Central and South America (1909) and Wilhelm Sievers, Sid and Mittelamerika (Leipzig, 1903), though somewhat antiquated are still valuable. E. C. Buley has written two useful handbooks, South Brazil, and North Brazil (1914). The two works of Pierre Walle, Au Bresil du Rio Sao Francisco a l'Amazone and Au Bresi' de l'Uruguay au Rio Sao Francisco, contain a wealth of economic and other data. Recent geographies containing admirable chapters on Brazil are R. H. Whitbeck, Economic Geography of South America (1926) and E. W. Shanahan, South America: an Economic and Regional Geography (1927). The best work on climate and rainfall is that of C M. Delgado de Carvalho, Meteorologie du Bresil (1917) . The Reports on the Economic and Financial Conditions in Brazil, prepared by Ernest Hambloch annually, and issued by the Department of Overseas Trade, contain important data.

See also Pierre Denis, "Amerique du Sud," in Geographic Univer sel1C, vol. xv., pt. ii., ed. De la Blanche at Gallois (Paris, 1927) for valuable facts.

Literature, fine arts, etc.:—The best work in English on Brazilian Literature is by Isaac Goldberg, Brazilian Literature (1922). Victor Oban, Le Bresil Litteraire, has written an interesting anthology. A brief account of Brazilian painting and music is given by Marie R. Wright, The New Brazil (Philadelphia, 19o7). (P. A. M.)