CALEDONIA, the Roman name of North Britain, still used for Scotland, especially in poetry. It occurs first in the poet Lucan (A.D. 64), and then often in Roman literature. There were (I) a district Caledonia, of which the southern border must have been on or near the isthmus between the Clyde and the Forth, (2) a Caledonian Forest (possibly in Perthshire), and (3) a tribe of Caledones or Calidones, named by the geographer Ptolemy as living within boundaries which are now unascertainable. The Romans first invaded Caledonia under Agricola about A.D. 82. After a brief halt on the Forth and Clyde Isthmus, where they established a line of temporary posts, one or two of which, notably that at Barhill, have been identified through excavation, they penetrated farther north and fought the decisive battle of the war, according to Tacitus on the slopes of Mons Graupius. (This, not Grampius, is the proper spelling, though Grampius was at one time commonly accepted and indeed gave rise to the modern name Grampian.) The site must have been some way beyond the Roman encampment of Inchtuthill (in the policies of Delvine, Iom. north of Perth near the union of Tay and Isla), which is the most northerly of the ascertained Roman encamp ments of a permanent character in Scotland and belongs to the age of Agricola. Tacitus represents the result as a victory. The home government, whether averse to expensive conquests of bar ren hills, or afraid of a victorious general, abruptly recalled Agric ola. The old view that his northern conquests were abandoned is not borne out by the results of recent research. Rather, there is evidence to show that they were held for 20 or 3o years after his departure, though not without various vicissitudes. The abun dance and richness of the relics found at Newstead, the Tri montium of Ptolemy, suggests that, on one occasion at least, the withdrawal was anything but orderly. Finally Hadrian fixed the frontier to the south of Cheviot. The next advance followed immediately. About A.D. 142, when the district up to the Firth of Forth was definitely annexed, and a rampart with forts along it, the Wall of Antoninus Pius, was drawn from sea to sea (see BRITAIN : Roman; and ANTONINUS PIUS). At the same time a few other forts such as Ardoch, north of Dunblane and Carpow near Abernethy were occupied or reoccupied. But the conquest was stubbornly disputed, and after several risings, the land north of Cheviot was lost about A.D. 180-185. About A.D. 208 the em peror Septimius Severus carried out an extensive punitive expedi tion against the northern tribes. It is doubtful how far he pene trated, for he has left no indubitable traces of his presence save at Cramaond on the Forth, and the great temporary camps that have been recognized in the shires of Forfar, Kincardine and Aberdeen, may as easily belong to earlier campaigns as to his. It is, however, clear that after his death the Roman writ never again ran north of Cheviot. Rome, indeed, is sometimes said to have recovered the whole land up to the Wall of Pius in A.D. 368 and to have established there a province, Valentia. A province with that name was certainly organized somewhere. But its site and extent are quite uncertain and its duration was exceedingly brief. Throughout, Scotland remained substantially untouched by Roman influences, and its Celtic art, though perhaps influenced by Irish, remained free from Mediterranean infusion. Even in the south of Scotland which was for a time within the empire, the occupation was military and produced little civilizing effect. Of the actual condition of the land during the period of Roman rule in Britain, we are only beginning to learn the details by excavation. The remains from the purely native settlement on Traprain Law in East Lothian, where the houses were of daub and wattle, include much Roman pottery and many Roman coins. The "brochs," the "crannoys," and the underground stone houses locally called "weems" in all three of which Roman fragments have been found, were also native forms of dwelling, etc., and some of the "Late Celtic" metal work may belong to this age. But of the political divisions, the boundaries and capitals of the tribes, and the like, we know nothing. Ptolemy gives a list of tribes and place names. But hardly one can be identified with any approach to certainty, except in the extreme south. Nor has unanimity quite been reached about the ethnological problems of the population, the Aryan or non-Aryan character of the Picts and the like. The name Caledonia is said to survive in the second syllable of Dunkeld and in "Schiehallion" (Sithchaillinn).