CALVIN, JOHN (1509-1564), Swiss divine and reformer, was born at Noyon, in Picardy, on July ro, 1509, and was the second son of Gerard Cauvin or Calvin, a notary-apostolic and procurator-fiscal for the lordship of Noyon, and of Jeanne le Franc, daughter of an innkeeper at Cambrai. (The family name of Calvin seems to have been written indifferently Cauvin, Chauve, Chauvin, Calvus, Calvinus. In the contemporary notices of Gerard and his family, in the capitular registers of the cathe dral at Noyon, the name is always spelt Cauuin. The anagram of Calvin is Alcuin, and this, in its Latinized form Alcuinus, appears in two editions of his Institutio as that of the author [Audin, Vie de Calvin, i. 520]. The syndics of Geneva address him in a letter written in 154o, and still preserved, as "Docteur Caulvin." In his letters written in French he usually signs himself "Jean Calvin." He affected the title of "Maitre," for what reason is not known.) Of Calvin's early years little is known. Destined for an ecclesi astical career, he was educated in the household of the noble fam ily of Hangest de Montmor. In May 1521 he was appointed to a chaplaincy in the cathedral of Noyon, and received the tonsure. Calvin accompanied the Hangests to Paris in Aug. 1523, being enabled to do so by the income received from his benefice. He attended as an out-student the College de la Marche, at that time under the regency of Mathurin Cordier, who in later days taught at Neuchatel, and died in Geneva in 1564. Calvin dedicated to him his Commentary on the First Epistle to the Thessalonians. From the College de la Marche he removed to the College de Montaigu, where the atmosphere was more ecclesiastical. (Pierre de Montaigu refounded this institution in 1388. Erasmus and Ignatius Loyola also studied here.) In the college disputations he gave fruitful promise of that consummate excellence as a reasoner in the department of speculative truth which he afterwards dis played. Among his friends were the Hangests (especially Claude), Nicolas and Michel Cop, sons of the king's Swiss physician, and his own kinsman Pierre Robert, better known as Olivetan. Such friendships contradict the legend that he was an unsociable misan thrope. The canons at Noyon gave him in Sept. 1527 the curacy of St. Martin de Marteville, which he exchanged in July 1529 for the cure of Pont l'Eveque. But Calvin was not destined to become a priest. Gerard Cauvin began to suspect that the law offered to a youth of his talents and industry a more promising sphere. He was also now out of favour with the cathedral chapter at Noyon. It is said that John himself, on the advice of Olivetan, the first translator of the Bible into French, had begun to study the Scrip tures and to dissent from the Roman worship. He readily com plied with his father's suggestion, and removed from Paris to Orleans (March 1528) in order to study law under Pierre Taisan de l'Etoile, the most distinguished jurisconsult of his day. Other studies, however, besides those of law occupied him, and moved by the humanistic spirit of the age, he eagerly developed his classical knowledge. His friends here were Melchior Wolmar, Francois Daniel, Francois de Connam and Nicolas Duchemin ; to these his earliest letters were written. From Orleans Calvin went to Bourges in the autumn of 1529 to continue his studies under the brilliant Italian, Andrea Alciati (1492-155o). His friend Daniel went with him, and Wolmar followed a year later. By Wolmar Calvin was taught Greek, and introduced to the study of the New Testament in the original.
Twelve years had elapsed since Luther had published his theses against indulgences. In France there had not been as yet any overt revolt against the Church of Rome, but multitudes were in sympathy with the reformers' ideals. Calvin's own record of his "conversion" is so scanty that it is extremely difficult to trace his religious development with any certainty. But it seems probable that at least up to 1532 he was far more concerned about classical scholarship than about religion.
His residence at Bourges was cut short by the death of his father in May 1531. He went to Paris, where the "new learning" was now at length ousting the mediaeval scholasticism from the university. He lodged in the College Fortet, reading Greek with Pierre Danes and beginning Hebrew with Francois Vatable. In April 1532 Calvin published his commentary in Latin on Seneca's tract De Clementia.
Soon afterwards Calvin returned to Orleans. He visited Noyon in Aug. 1533, and by October of the same year was settled again in Paris. Here and now his destiny became certain. The con servative theology was becoming discredited, and humanists like Jacques Lefevre of Staples (Faber Stapulensis) and Gerard Rous sel were favoured by the court under the influence of Margaret of Angouleme, queen of Navarre and sister of Francis I. Calvin's old friend, Nicolas Cop, had just been elected rector of the university and had to deliver an oration according to custom in the church of the Mathurins, on the feast of All Saints. The oration (cer tainly influenced but hardly composed by Calvin) was in effect a defence of the reformed opinions, especially of the doctrine of justification by faith alone. To the period between April 1532 and November and in particular to the time of his second sojourn at Orleans, we may assign the great change in Calvin which he describes (Prae f . ad Psalmos; opera xxxi. 21-24) as his "sudden conversion" and attributes to direct divine agency. But Cop's address was followed by a summons to the orator to appear before the parlement of Paris, and as he failed to secure the sup port either of the king, or of the university, he fled to Basle. An attempt was made at the same time to seize Calvin who, being forewarned of the design, also made his escape. He went to Noyon, but, proceedings against him being dropped, soon returned to Paris. He left the city again about New Year of 1534 and became the guest of Louis du Tillet, a canon of the cathedral, at Angouleme. Here, in du Tillet's splendid library, he began the studies which resulted in his great work, the Institutes, and paid a visit to Nerac, where the venerable Lefevre, whose revised translation of the Bible into French was published about this time, was spending his last years under the kindly care of Margaret of Navarre.
Up to this time Calvin's work for the evangelical cause was not so much that of the public preacher or reformer as that of the re tiring but influential scholar and adviser. Now, however, he had to decide whether, like Roussel and other of his friends, he should strive to combine the new doctrines with a position in the old church, or whether he should definitely break away from Rome. His mind was made up, and on May 4 he resigned his chaplaincy at Noyon and his rectorship at Pont l'tveque. Towards the end of the same month he was arrested and suffered two short terms of imprisonment, the charges against him being not strong enough to be pressed. His movements now become difficult to trace, but he visited Paris, Orleans and Poitiers.
The Anabaptists of Germany had spread into France, and among other notions which they had spread abroad was that of a sleep of the soul after death. To Calvin this notion appeared so pernicious that he composed a treatise of refutation of it, under the title of Psychopannychia. The preface to this treatise is dated Orleans 1534, but it was not printed till 1542. At Poitiers, in a grotto near the town, he for the first time celebrated the com munion in the Evangelical Church of France, using a piece of rock as a table.
The year 1534 was thus decisive for Calvin. From this time forward his influence became supreme, and all who had accepted the reformed doctrines in France turned to him for counsel and instruction. Renan, no prejudiced judge, pronounces him "the most Christian man of his time," and attributes to this his success as a reformer. But his life was in danger, and, in company with his friend Louis du Tillet, whom he had again gone to Angouleme to visit, he set out for Basle. Here Calvin was welcomed by the band of scholars and theologians who made that city the Athens of Switzerland, and especially by Oswald Myconius, the chief pas tor, Pierre Viret and Heinrich Bullinger. Under the guidance of Sebastian Munster, Calvin now gave himself to the study of Hebrew.
Francis I., desirous to continue the suppression of the Protes tants, but anxious, because of his strife with Charles V., not to break with the Protestant princes of Germany, instructed his am bassador to assure these princes that it was only against Ana baptists, and other parties who called in question all civil magis tracy, that his severities were exercised. Calvin, indignant at the calumny which was thus cast upon the reformed party in France, hastily prepared for the press his Institutes of the Christian Re ligion. The work was dedicated to the king, and Calvin says he wrote it in Latin that it might find access to the learned in all lands. Soon after it appeared he set about translating it into French, as he himself attests in a letter dated October 1536. This sets at rest a question at one time much agitated, whether the book appeared first in French or in Latin. The earliest French edition known is that of 154o, and this was after the work had been much enlarged, and several Latin editions had appeared. In its first form the work consisted of only six chapters, and was in tended merely as a brief manual of Christian doctrine. The chap ters follow a traditional scheme of religious teaching : (1) The Law (as in the Ten Words), (2) Faith (as in the Apostles' Creed), (3) Prayer, (4) the Sacraments; to these were added (5) False Sacraments, (6) Christian liberty, ecclesiastical power and civil administration. The closing chapters of the work are more polem ical than the earlier ones. His indebtedness to Luther is of course great, but his spiritual kinship with Martin Bucer of Strasbourg is even more marked. The book appeared anonymously, the author having, as he himself says, nothing in view beyond fur nishing a statement of the faith of the persecuted Protestants. In this work, written at the age of 26, we find a complete outline of the Calvinist theological system. Nor is there any reason to be lieve that he ever changed his views on any essential point from what they were at the period of its first publication. It exercised a prodigious influence upon the opinions and practices both of contemporaries and of posterity.
After a short visit (April 1536) to the court of Renee, duchess of Ferrara (cousin to Margaret of Navarre), Calvin returned through Basle to France to arrange his affairs before finally taking farewell of his native country. His intention was to settle at Strasbourg or Basle, and to devote himself to study. Unable, in consequence of the war between Francis I. and Charles V., to reach Strasbourg by the ordinary route, he journeyed to Lyons and so to Geneva, making for Basle. In Geneva his progress was arrested by the "formidable obtestation" of Guillaume Farel (Prae f . ad Psalmos) who had succeeded in planting the evangelical standard at Geneva. Anxious to secure the aid of such a man as Calvin, he entreated him on his arrival to devote himself to the work in that city. Calvin, after some hesitation, consented, hur ried to Basle, transacted some business, and returned to Geneva in Aug. 1536. He at once began to expound the epistles of St. Paul in the church of St. Pierre, and after about a year was also elected preacher by the magistrates with the consent of the people. His services were at first rendered gratuitously.
Calvin was in his 28th year when he settled at Geneva; and in this city the rest of his life, with the exception of a brief interval, was spent. The post to which he was thus called was not an easy one. Though the people of Geneva had cast off the obedience of Rome, it was largely a political revolt against the duke of Savoy, and they were still (says Beza) "but very imperfectly enlightened in divine knowledge." This laid them open to the incursions of those fanatical teachers, whom the excitement attendant upon the Reformation had called forth, and who hung mischievously upon the rear of the reforming body. To obviate the evils thence re sulting, Calvin, in union with Farel, drew up a condensed state ment of Christian doctrine consisting of 21 articles. This the citizens were summoned, in parties of ten each, to profess and swear to as the confession of their faith. As the people took this oath in the capacity of citizens, we may see here the basis laid for that theocratic system which subsequently became peculiarly char acteristic of the Genevan polity. Calvin and his coadjutors were solicitous to establish schools throughout the city, and to en f orce attendance ; and as he had no faith in education apart from religious training, he drew up a catechism of Christian doctrine which was an obligatory part of the curriculum. Of the troubles which arose from fanatical teachers, the chief proceeded from the efforts of the Anabaptists ; a public disputation was held on March 16-17, 1537, and so excited the populace that the Council of Two Hundred stopped it, declared the Anabaptists vanquished and drove them from the city. About the same time the peace of Calvin and his friends was much disturbed and their work in terrupted by Pierre Caroli, chief pastor at Lausanne. Calvin brought Caroli before the commissioners of Berne on a charge of advocating prayers for the dead as a means of their earlier resur rection. Caroli brought a counter-charge against the Geneva di vines of Sabellianism and Arianism. In a synod held at Berne the matter was fully discussed, a verdict was given in favour of the Geneva divines, and Caroli deposed from his office and banished. Two brief anti-Romanist tracts, one entitled De fugiendis im piorum sacris, the other De sacerdotio papali ab jiciendo, were also published by Calvin early in this year.
But the austerity, both of ritual and living, enjoined by Calvin and his endeavour to effect the complete freedom of the Church from State control, was deeply resented. He and his colleagues re fused to administer the sacrament in the Bernese form, i.e., with unleavened bread, and on Easter Sunday, 1538, declined to do so at all because of the popular tumult. For this thfy were ban ished from the city. They went at first to Berne, and soon after to Zurich, where they pleaded their cause before a synod of Swiss pastors, and declared that they would yield in the matter of cere monies so far as to employ unleavened bread in the eucharist, to use fonts in baptism and to allow festival days, provided the peo ple might pursue their ordinary avocations after public service. These Calvin regarded as matters of indifference, provided the magistrates did not make them of importance, by seeking to en force them ; and he was the more willing to concede them, because he hoped thereby to meet the wishes of the Bernese brethren whose ritual was less simple than that established by Farel at Geneva. But he and his colleagues insisted, on the other hand, that for the proper maintenance of discipline, there should be a division of parishes—that excommunications should be permitted, and should be under the power of elders chosen by the council, in conjunction with the clergy—that order should be observed in the admission of preachers—and that only the clergy should officiate in ordination by the laying on of hands. It was proposed that the sacrament of the Holy Communion should be administered more frequently, at least once every month, and that congregational singing of psalms should be practised in the churches. On these terms the synod interceded with the Genevese to restore their pastors; but through the opposition of some of the Bernese (es pecially Peter Kuntz, the pastor of that city) this was frustrated, and a second edict of banishment was the only response.
Calvin and Farel betook themselves to Basle, where they soon of ter separated, Farel to go to Neuchatel and Calvin to Stras bourg, where he remained until the autumn of 1541. These years were not the least valuable in his experience. In 1539 he at tended Charles V.'s conference on Christian reunion at Frank furt as the companion of Bucer, and in the following year he rep resented the city of Strasbourg at Hagenau and Worms. He was present also at the diet at Regensburg, where he formed with Melanchthon a lifelong friendship. He also did something to re lieve the persecuted Protestants of France. To this period we owe a revised and enlarged form of his Institutes, his Commen tary on the Epistle to the Romans, and his Tract on the Lord's Supper. During his residence at Strasbourg he married, in Aug. 154o, Idelette de Bure, the widow of one Jean Stordeur of Liege, whom he had converted from Anabaptism. In her Calvin found, to use his own words, "the excellent companion of his life," a "precious help" to him amid his manifold labours and frequent in firmities. She died in 1549. Their only child, Jacques, born on July 28, 1S42, lived only a few days.
During Calvin's absence disorder and irreligion had prevailed in Geneva. An attempt made by Cardinal Jacopo Sadoleto (1477 , bishop of Carpentras, to restore Roman Catholicism was frustrated by a letter written by Calvin at the desire of the Bernese authorities. The letter was a popular yet thoroughgoing defence of the whole Protestant position, perhaps the best apol ogia for the Reformation that was ever written. While he was still at Strasbourg there appeared at Geneva a translation of the Bible into French, bearing Calvin's name, but in reality only re vised and corrected by him from the version of Olivetan. Mean while his enemies in Geneva gradually lost power and office. Farel worked unceasingly for his recall. He returned to Geneva, where he was received with the utmost enthusiasm, on Sept. 13, 1S41. He now determined to carry out his whole original scheme of re form, and to set up in all its integrity that form of church polity which he had carefully matured during his residence at Strasbourg. He now became the sole directive spirit in the Church at Geneva. Farel was retained by the Neuchatelois, and Viret, soon after Calvin's return, removed to Lausanne.
He recodified the Genevan laws and constitution, and was the leading spirit in the negotiations with Berne that issued in the treaty of Feb. 1544. He spent much time in controversy, notably over the doctrine of predestination and election. His three chief opponents were Albert Pighius, who subsequently embraced his views, Jerome Bolsec, Sebastien Castellio and, greatest of all, Michael Servetus (q.v.). At Calvin's instance Servetus was ar raigned for blasphemy, condemned, and burnt to death. Even though the opprobrium of this procedure must be shared by the Genevan fathers, the Swiss authorities, and some of the more fa mous reformers like Melanchthon, who approved it, Calvin cannot be held guiltless of perpetrating a martyrdom that did much to sully the cause he had so greatly at heart.
Calvin was also involved in a protracted and somewhat vex ing dispute with the Lutherans respecting the Holy Communion, which ended in the separation of the evangelical party into the two great sections of Lutherans and Reformed—the former hold ing that in the eucharist the body and blood of Christ are objec tively and consubstantially present, and so are actually partaken of by the communicants, and the latter that there is only a virtual presence of the body and blood of Christ, and consequently only a spiritual participation thereof through faith. In addition to these controversies on points of faith, he was for many years greatly disquieted by opposition in Geneva to the ecclesiastical discipline which he had established there. His system of church polity was essentially theocratic ; it assumed that every member of the Sate was also under the discipline of the Church ; and he asserted that the right of exercising this discipline was vested exclusively in the consistory or body of preachers and elders. Calvin's views on Church discipline naturally brought him into conflict with the civil authority and with the people. But his courage, his perse verance and his earnestness at length prevailed and, before he died, his system of church polity was firmly established, not only at Geneva, but in other parts of Switzerland, and was adopted substantially by the Reformers in France and Scotland. The men whom he trained at Geneva carried his principles into almost every country in Europe. Nor was it only in religious matters that Calvin busied himself ; he was consulted on every affair, great and small, that came before the council—on questions of law, police, economy, trade and manufactures, no less than on questions of doctrine and Church polity. To him the city owed her trade in cloths and velvets, from which so much wealth accrued to her citizens ; sanitary regulations were introduced by him which made Geneva the admiration of all visitors ; and in him she reverences the founder of her university. This institution was in a sense Calvin's crowning work. It added religious education to the evan gelical preaching and the thorough discipline already established, and so completed the reformer's ideal of a Christian common wealth.
The incessant and exhausting labours to which Calvin gave him self could not but tell on his fragile constitution. On Feb. i6, 1564, he preached his last sermon, having with great difficulty found breath enough to carry him through it. On April 20 he made his will, on the 27th he received the Little Council, and on the 28th the Genevan ministers, in his sick-room; on May 2 he wrote his last letter—to his old comrade Farel, who hastened from Neu chatel to see him once again. He spent much time in prayer and died quietly, in the arms of his faithful friend Theodore Beza, on the evening of May 27. The next day he was buried without pomp "in the common cemetery called Plain-palais," in a spot not now to be identified.
Calvin was of middle stature ; his complexion was somewhat pallid and dark; his eyes, to the latest clear and lustrous, bespoke the acumen of his genius. He was sparing in his food and simple in his dress; he took but little sleep, and was capable of extraor dinary efforts of intellectual toil. He had a most retentive mem ory and a very keen power of observation. He spoke without rhetoric, simply, directly, but with great weight. He had many acquaintances, but few close friends. If somewhat severe and irri table, he was at the same time scrupulously just, truthful and steadfast ; he never deserted a friend or took an unfair advantage of an antagonist; and on befitting occasions he could be cheerful and even facetious among his intimates.
Though Calvin built his theology on the foundations laid by earlier reformers, and especially by Luther and Bucer, his pe culiar gifts of learning, of logic and of style made him pre-emi nently the theologian of the new religion.
Calvin's dominant thought is the infinite and transcendent sov ereignty of God, to know whom is man's supreme end. God is known to man especially by the Scriptures, whose writers were "sure and authentic amanuenses of the Holy Spirit." While God is the source of all good, man is guilty and corrupt. The first man was made in the image of God, which not only implies man's su periority to other creatures, but indicates his original purity, in tegrity and sanctity. Through Adam's fall, depravity and corrup tion attach to all men. On account of such corruption all are deservedly condemned before God, by whom nothing is accepted save righteousness, innocence and purity. When it is said that we through Adam's sin have become obnoxious to the divine judg ment, it is not to be taken as if we being ourselves innocent and blameless, bear the fault of his offence, but that, we having been brought under a curse through his transgression, he is said to have bound us. From him, however, not only has punishment overtaken us, but a pestilence instilled from him resides in us, to which punishment is justly due. Thus even infants, whilst they bring their own condemnation with them from their mothers' wombs, are bound not by another's but by their own fault. For though they have not yet brought forth the fruits of their iniquity, they have its seed; nay, their whole nature is a sort of seed of sin, therefore it cannot but be hateful to God (Instit. bk. ii. ch. i. sec. 8).
To redeem man from this state of corruption, the Son of God became incarnate. He took on Him the offices of prophet, priest and king, and by His humiliation, obedience and suffering unto death, followed by His resurrection and ascension to heaven, He has perfected His work and fulfilled all that was required in a re deemer of men, so that it is truly affirmed that He has merited for man the grace of salvation (bk. ii. ch. 13-17) . But until a man is united to Christ, the benefits of Christ's work cannot be attained by him. This union is achieved through the special oper ation of the Holy Spirit in the faithful, who thus become partakers of His death and resurrection, so that the old man is crucified with Him and they are raised to a life of righteousness and holi ness. Thus joined to Christ, the believer has life in Him and knows that he is saved, having the witness of the Spirit that he is a child of God, and having the promises, the certitude of which the Spirit had bef ore impressed on the mind, sealed by the same Spirit on the heart (bk. iii. ch. 33-36). From faith springs repent ance, proceeding from a sincere fear of God, and consisting in the mortification of the flesh and the old man within us and a vivifica tion of the Spirit. Through faith also the believer receives justifi cation, his sins are forgiven, he is accepted of God, and is held by Him as righteous, the righteousness of Christ being imputed to him. This imputed righteousness, however, is not disjoined from real personal righteousness, for regeneration and sanctification come to the believer from Christ no less than justification ; the two blessings are not to be confounded, but neither are they to be disjoined. The assurance which the believer has of salvation he receives from the operation of the Holy Spirit ; but this again rests on the divine choice of the man to salvation ; and this falls back on God's eternal sovereign purpose, whereby He has pre destined some to eternal life and some to eternal death. The former he effectually calls to salvation, and they are kept by Him in progressive faith and holiness unto the end (bk. iii. passim) . The external means by which God unites men into the fellowship of Christ, and advances those who believe, are the Church and its ordinances, especially the sacraments. The Church universal is the multitude gathered from diverse nations, which though di vided by time and place, agree in one common faith, and it is bound by the tie of the same religion ; and wherever the word of God is sincerely preached, and the sacraments are duly adminis tered, according to Christ's institute, there beyond doubt is a Church of the living God (bk. iv. ch. i, sect. 7-11). Its permanent officers are pastors and teachers, to the former of whom it belongs to preside over the discipline of the Church, to administer the sacraments, and to admonish the members; while the latter ex pound the Scriptures. With them are to be joined for the gov ernment of the Church certain pious men as a senate in each church; and to others, as deacons, is to be entrusted the care of the poor. The election of the officers is to be with the people, and those duly chosen are to be ordained by the laying on of the hands of the pastors (ch. 3, sect. 4-16). The sacraments are two- Baptism and the Lord's Supper. Baptism is the sign of initiation into the Church ; it serves both for the confirmation of faith and as a confession before men. The Holy Communion is a spiritual feast where Christ attests that He is the life-giving bread, by which our souls are fed. That sacred communication of His flesh and blood whereby Christ transfuses into us His life, He in the Supper attests and seals ; and that not by an empty sign but there He puts forth the efficacy of His Spirit whereby He ful fils what He promises. In the mystery of the Supper Christ is truly exhibited by the symbols of bread and wine ; and so His body and blood, in which He fulfilled all obedience for the obtain ing of righteousness for us, are presented. Christ is not affixed to the bread or in any way circumscribed; but whatever can express the true and substantial communication of the body and blood of the Lord, which is exhibited to believers under the said symbols is to be received, and that not as merely mentally received, but as enjoyed for the aliment of the eternal life (bk. iv. ch. 15, 17) . The course of time has substantially modified many of Calvin's positions. Even the churches which trace their descent from him no longer hold in their entirety his views on the magistrate as the preserver of church purity, the utter depravity of human nature, the non-human character of the Bible, the dealing of God with man. But his system had great value in the history of Christian thought. It appealed to and evoked a high order of intelligence, and its insistence on personal individual salvation has borne worthy fruit. So also its insistence on the chief end of man "to know and do the will of God" made for strenuous morality. Its effects are most clearly seen in Scotland, in Puritan England and in the New England States, but its influence was and is felt among peoples that have little desire or claim to be called Calvinist. BIBLIOGRAPHY.-The standard edition of Calvin's works is that of the Strasbourg scholars, J. W. Baum, E. Cunitz, E. Reuss, P. Lobstein, A. Erichson (59 vols., 1863-1900). The last of these contains an elaborate bibliography also published separately at Berlin in 1900. The bulk of the writings was published in English by the Calvin Translation Society (48 vols., Edinburgh, ; the Institutes have often been translated. The early lives by Beza and Collodon are given in the collected editions. Among modern biog raphies are those by P. Henry, Das Leben J. Calvins (3 vols., Hamburg, ; Eng. trans. by H. Stebbing, London and New York, 1849) ; V. Audin, Histoire de la vie, des ouvrages, et des doctrines de Calvin (2 vols., Paris, 1841 ; Eng. trans. by J. McGill, London, 1843 and 185o) , unfairly antagonistic; T. H. Dyer, Life of John Calvin (London, 185o) ; E. Stahelin, Joh. Calvin, Leben and ausgewdhlte Schriften (2 vols., Elberfeld, 1863) ; F. W. Kamp schulte, Joh. Calvin, seine Kirche and sein Staat in Genf (2 vols., 1869, 1899, unfinished) ; Abel Lefranc, La Jeunesse de Calvin (Paris, 1888) ; E. Choisy, La Theocratie a Geneve an temps de Calvin (Geneva, 1897) ; E. Doumergue, Jean Calvin; les hommes et les choses de son temps (17 vols., 1899-1927) . See also A. M. Fairbairn, "Calvin and the Reformed Church" in the Cambridge Modern History, vol. ii. (19o4) ; P. Schaff's History of the Christian Church, vol. vii. (1892) , and R. Stahelin's article in Hauck-Herzog's Realencyk. f iir trot. Theologie and Kirche. Each of these contains a useful bibliography, as also does the excellent life by Professor Williston Walker, John Calvin, the Organizer of Reformed Protestantism, "Heroes of the Reformation" series (1906). See also C. S. Horne in Mansfield Coll. Essays (1909) ; L. Penning, Life and Times of Calvin, Eng. trans. by B. S. Berrington (1912) .