The First Four Caliphs

THE FIRST FOUR CALIPHS After the death of Muhammad, homage was paid to Abu Bakr, as his successor.

I. Reign of Abu Bakr.—Abu Bakr's first task was the crush ing of the revolt of the Bedouins who were compelled to submit. But the internal consolidation of Islam in Arabia was mainly brought about by its diffusion abroad. The holy war against the border countries which Muhammad had already inaugurated, was the best means for making the new religion popular among the Arabs, for opportunity was also afforded for gaining rich booty. After the subjugation of middle and north-eastern Arabia, Khalid b. al-Walid proceeded by order of the caliph to the con quest of the districts on the lower Euphrates. Thence he was summoned to Syria, where hostilities had also broken out.

2. Reign of `Umar.—Abu Bakr (d. Aug. 22, 634) was succeed ed by `Umar, to whose reign belong for the most part the great conquests. Damascus fell late in the summer of 635, and on Aug. 20, 636, was fought the great decisive battle on the Hieromax (Yarmuk), which caused the emperor Heraclius (q.v.) finally to abandon Syria. Left alone, the Christians henceforward defended themselves only in isolated cases in the fortified cities. Meanwhile the war was also carried on against the Persians in `Iraq, unsuc cessfully at first, until the tide turned at the battle of Qadisiyyah (end of 637). In consequence of the defeat which they here sus tained, the Persians were forced to abandon the western portion of their empire and limit themselves to Iran proper. The Muslims made themselves masters of Ctesiphon (Madain), the residence of the Sasanids on the Tigris, and conquered in the immediately following years the country of the two rivers. In 639 the armies of Syria and Iraq were face to face in Mesopotamia. In a short time they had taken from the Aryans all the principal old Semitic lands—Palestine, Syria, Mesopotamia, Assyria and Babylonia. To these was soon added Egypt, which was overrun with little diffi culty by `Amr ibn-al-`As in 64o. (See EGYPT: History § Muham madan.) The lapse of the masses from Christianity to Islam, which took place during the first century after the conquest, is to be ac counted for only by the fact that in reality they had no inward relation to the Gospel at all. They changed their creed merely to acquire the rights and privileges of Muslim citizens. In no case were they compelled to do so.

It would have been a great advantage for the solidity of the Arabian empire if it had confined itself within the limits of those old Semitic lands, with perhaps the addition of Egypt. But the Persians were not so ready as the Greeks to give up the contest ; they did not rest until the Muslims had subjugated the whole of the Sasanid empire. The most important event in the protracted war which led to the conquest of Iran, was the battle of Niha wand in 641 ; the most obstinate resistance was offered by Persis proper, and especially by the capital, Istakhr (Persepolis). In the end, all the numerous and partly autonomous provinces of the Sasanid empire fell, one after the other, into the hands of the Muslims, and the young king, Yazdagird III. (q.v.), was com pelled to retire to the farthest corner of his realm, where he came to a miserable end. But the subjection of the Persians was only external, nor did Islam ever succeed in assimilating them as the Syrian Christians were assimilated.

`Umar's military policy aimed at making the whole Arab nation an army of soldiers; his internal policy was directed chiefly towards financial questions—the incidence of taxation in the con quered territories, and the application of the vast resources which poured into the Treasury at Medina. In the mosque at Medina he was stabbed by a Kufan workman and died in Nov. 3. Reign of `Uthman.—Under the weak `Uthman, who was elected to succeed `Umar, the government of Islam fell entirely into the hands of the Meccan aristocracy. `Uthman did all in his power to press forward this development of affairs. He belonged to the foremost family of Mecca, the Umayyads, and that he should favour his relations and the Quraysh as a whole, in every possible way, seemed to him a matter of course. Every position of influence and emolument was assigned to them.

Against the rising tide of worldliness an opposition, however, now began to appear, led by what may be called the spiritual noblesse of Islam. Everywhere in the provinces there was agita tion against the caliph and his governors, except in Syria, where `Uthman's cousin, Mu`awiyah, carried on a wise and strong admin istration. The movement was most energetic in `Iraq and in Egypt. Its ultimate aim was the deposition of `Uthman in favour of `Ali, whose own services as well as his close relationship to the Prophet seemed to give him the best claim to the Caliphate.

The malcontents demanded the abdication of `Uthman, besieg ing him in his own house, where he was defended by a few faith ful subjects. As he would not yield, they at last took the building by storm and put him to death, an old man of eighty.

4. Reign of `Ali.

Controversy as to the inheritance at once arose among the leaders of the opposition. The mass of the mu tineers summoned `Ali to the Caliphate, and compelled even Talha and Zubayr, disappointed candidates for the Caliphate, to do him homage. But soon these two, along with `A'ishah, the mother of the faithful, who had an old grudge against `Ali, succeeded in making their escape to `Iraq, where at Basra they raised the standard of rebellion. The new caliph, however, found means of disposing of their opposition, and at the battle of the Camel, f ought at Basra in Nov. 656 Talha and Zubayr were slain, and `A'ishah was taken prisoner.

But even so `Ali had not secured peace. With the murder of `Uthman the dynastic principle gained the twofold advantage of a legitimate cry—that of vengeance for the blood of the grey haired caliph—and a distinguished champion, the governor Mu' awiyah, whose position in Syria was impregnable. He exhibited `Uthman's blood-stained garment in the mosque at Damascus, and incited his Syrians to vengeance.

`All's position in Kuf a was much less advantageous. The popu lation of `Iraq was already mixed up with Persian elements ; it fluctuated greatly, and was largely composed of fresh immigrants. Islam had its headquarters here ; Kuf a and Basra were the home of the pious and of the adventurer, the centres of religious and political movement. This movement it was that had raised `Ali to the Caliphate, but yet it did not really take any personal interest in him. Religion proved for him a less trustworthy and more dan gerous support than did the conservative and secular feeling of Syria for the Umayyads. Mu`awiyah could either act or refrain from acting as he chose, secure in either case of the obedience of his subjects. `Ali, on the other hand, was unable to convert en thusiasm for the principle inscrioed on his banner into enthusiasm for his person. It was necessary that he should accommodate him self to the wishes of his supporters, who compelled him suddenly to break off the battle of Siffin, which he was apparently on the point of gaining over Mu`awiyah because the Syrians fastened copies of the Qur'an to their lances to denote that not the sword, but the word of God should decide the contest. But in yielding to the will of the majority he excited the displeasure of the minor ity, the genuine zealots; so when the negotiations failed and war was resumed, the Kharijites refused to follow `All's army, and he had to turn his armies in the first instance against them. He de feated them at the battle of Nahrawan, but in his success he lost the soul of his following.