CAUCASIAN LANGUAGES. This term is applied to the languages used on the Caucasian isthmus which do not belong to the Indo-German, or to the Semitic, or to the Turco-Mongolian family. They are divided into three groups—the East Caucasian, the best Caucasian and the South Caucasian. The East Cau casian group can be divided into eight branches : i. The Chechen branch (the chief being the Chechen language of the middle course of the Terek and Daghestan) ; 2. Avaro-Andi (12 languages in West Daghestan, the chief being the Avar language) ; 3. Darghi (East Daghestan) ; 4. Samur (South Daghestan, the chief being the Kuri language, near Derbent) ; 5. Lakk or Kasi-Kumuk (Cen tral Daghestan) ; 6. Artchi (one village in Central Daghestan) ; 7. Hinalugh (one village near the mountain Shah-Dag) ; and 8. Udi (two villages near the town Nukha). The West Caucasian languages have three branches : 1. Abhaz—region of Sukhum Kale ; 2. Ubykh—formerly dominant in the region of Sotchi, but now spoken only by a few families in Asia Minor ; 3. Adyghe, with two dialects—Kabardi (in the so-called Kabarda, principal town Naltchik) and Kiakh or Cherkess (region of Kuban and the Caucasian shore of the Black sea). The South Caucasian lan guages are : I. Georgian with its dialects; 2. Mingrelian and Laz; 3. Svanetian.
East Caucasian and West Caucasian are related and may be considered as two branches of the North Caucasian group. The relationship between this and the South Caucasian group has not, as yet, been scientifically proved, and in the present state of our knowledge the North Caucasian and South Caucasian groups must be considered as separate.
The North Caucasian languages are distinguished by an extraor dinary abundance of consonants, which in Cherkess are 57 in number. Very characteristic of the phonetic system of North Caucasian languages are the lateral consonants, which convey the impression of combinations kl, gl, thl; then a great number of consonants of the type k, pronounced in the deep back part of the palate, etc. This superabundance of consonants is moderated in the East Caucasian group where consonants rarely come into contact with each other; but in West Caucasian languages the contact and combination of consonants occur very frequently, and the most complicated combinations, very difficult to pro nounce, are admitted.
In the East Caucasian languages substantives are divided into classes or "genders" ; their number varies in different languages (from two to six) . In most cases, neither from the meaning of the word nor from any outward formal symptom is it possible to know to which class the substantive belongs. Very often the same substantive belongs in the singular to one class and in the plural to another. A consonant, specific for each group (w, b, d, r, y) is added as prefix, infix or suffix to the adjectives, verbs, pro nouns, adverbs, etc., connected with the substantive. For example, the Avars say : "Dow tclii wugo roqow"—this man is in the house; "Doh keto bugo roqob"—this cat is in the house; "Doy thladi Yigo roqoy"—this wife is in the house. Substantives, adjectives and pronouns are declined; an extraordinary number of cases is used to express ideas that in other languages are expressed by a combination of words with prepositions. The Tabassaran lan guage has 35 cases. The system of declension is based on the oppo sition of Casus Agens to Casus Patiens. The Casus Agens is used for the logical subject of transitive verbs, and Casus Patiens for the logical object of transitive and logical subject of intransitive verbs. The outward distinction between Casus Agens and Casus Patiens is expressed in a different way by different substantives. Thus, in the Kuri language Lam—"ass"—has Agens Lamra and ghum—"smoke"— has Agens ghumadi. All other cases are derived from the Agens by adding different endings. The plural is also formed differently from different substantives, so that the de clension of substantives in East Caucasian languages is full of irregularities. The same is true of conjugation in most of these languages. The verbal root, i.e., the invariable part of all verbal forms, consists mostly of one consonant. Before it are the pre fixes, indicating the aspect of the verb (i.e., whether the action is considered as a lasting process or as a concluded action) and the gender signs mentioned above agree with the Patiens of the sentence. Af ter the root consonant come the elements, indicating time, mood and sometimes the person. There are many verbal forms and the difference of their meaning is often very subtle and difficult to define. The East Caucasian languages have therefore a complicated grammar with a great abundance and prodigality of forms. The same prodigality is found in the vocabulary; there are for instance special adverbs to indicate such notions as "five years ago," "four days later," etc.—these words having nothing in common with the corresponding numerals.
In the West Caucasian languages, declension is reduced to a minimum ; the Adyghe and Ubykh languages have only three cases, the Abhaz has no declension at all. There are fewer verbal forms than in the East Caucasian languages. The vocabulary is poor, so that the simplest notions are expressed by compound words, e.g., in Adyghe the beard is designated as "tail of the mouth," etc. The characteristic peculiarity of West Caucasian languages is a fondness for combining words. Notwithstanding these differ ences between East and West Caucasian languages, there are still important similarities in both these groups—viz., in the most elementary words, personal pronouns, numerals, simple verb roots, etc., so that there can be no doubt as to their relationship. There are also isolated similarities in the grammar, for instance the oppo sition of Casus Agens to Casus Patiens, traces of the different classes of substantives, etc.
The phonetic system of South Caucasian languages is simpler than that of the North Caucasian ; there is a striking fondness for the agglomeration of consonants (e.g., the Georgian, mghwdl is genit. for "priest"). There is only one gender. The declension is rich in case forms, but their formation is regular. The verb has a developed conjugation; the means of expressing personal forms through combination of certain prefixes and suffixes is compli cated. In the South Caucasian languages the agreement of the verb with its subject and object varies with the tenses of the verb. In the present the subject is in the nominative and the object in the dative-accusative. In the Aorist the subject is in a special case (Agens?) and the object in the nominative, in the perfect the subject is in the dative and the object in the nominative.
Georgian alone has an ancient written literature, beginning with the 5th century A.D., and in recent years books and newspapers have begun to appear in other Caucasian languages.