CELEBES (1), one of the four great Sunda islands in the Dutch East Indies. It extends from I° 45' N. to 37' S. and from 118° 49' E. to 125° 5' E.
From the backbone of the island, which runs north and south, three long peninsulas project north-east, east and south-east, respectively, the first being much the longest. These peninsulas form great gulfs—on the eastern side, from north to south they are : the Gulfs of Tomini, or Gorontalo, Bolo and Boni, the first being the largest. Thus the island is of very curious shape, and its length, 800m., and coast-line, 2,000m., are quite dis proportionate to its breadth, which averages between 36 and 12om., and at one point narrows to eighteen. As a result, no place in Celebes is as far as 7o miles from the sea. Celebes is situated in a very deep sea, between Borneo, west, which is in a shallow sea, on a shelf off the continent of Asia, and New Guinea, east, also in a shallow sea, and on a shelf projecting from Aus tralia. The coast is dangerously fringed by drying coral reefs with many shoals and banks. The whole island is mountainous. Two parallel ranges run from north to south in the main central mass, and a northern extension of this traverses the entire northern arm of Celebes to Menado. From these ranges a single range projects north-eastwards to the extreme end of the eastern arm of the island, and two parallel ranges run, in a south-easterly direction, throughout the greater part of the south-eastern arm. The great central ranges (with Mt. Koruwe, centre, and Mt. Bon thain, south, over io,000ft.), throw out large spurs, which domi nate the central and western parts of Celebes. In the extreme north-east (Mt. Klabat, 6,62oft.), and south, the mountains are volcanic, some in the former region being active, whilst solfataras and hot springs are found in Minahasa. Wide rift valleys between the mountain ranges contain several lakes—in the north (Mina hasa), Tondano, 2,000ft. above sea level, 9m. long and 31m. wide, (Gorontalo), Limboto, Batudaka, and Bolano Sawu, in the central nucleus, Lake Lindu, further south, in the same rift, Tempe and Sidenreng (monsoon lakes), and east of these, extending into the south-eastern arm, the principal lakes of the island—Poso, Ma tana and Towuti. They are very deep, Matana having been sounded to 1,50o and Poso to i,000 feet.
The rivers of Celebes are short and unimportant, for waterfalls and rapids are frequent ; their mouths are obstructed by bars, and there is very little coastal plain, save at Luwu (head of Gulf of Boni) and near Macassar and among mangrove-swamps of the north coast of the Gulf of Tomini. The Jenemeja, which flows into the Gulf of Boni, is wide and navigable for some distance from its mouth, the Poso, which enters the Gulf of Tomini, is also wide and navigable, for very small craft, to Paluasi, the Sadang, enter ing the Gulf of Mandar, on the south-west coast, has many ef fluents, and is navigable by sampans, the Lasolo, south-east, ad mits steamers for 16 miles from its mouth; the rivers of Goron talo are very small. The best natural harbours are Menado bay, Amurang bay, Kwandang bay, and Dondo bay, on the north coast; Tambu bay, Pare Pare bay, and Palu bay (Donggala), on the west coast ; Gorontalo and Poso, in the Gulf of Tomini, with the Gulf of Poh, which penetrates eastward for 22 miles; the bays of Tomori, Kendari, and Staring, in the Gulf of Tolo, and the bays of Mengkoka, Palopo, Usu (Luwu), and Sopang, in the Gulf of Boni. Off the west coast is the Spermunde archipelago, a number of low islands surrounded by coral reefs, off the south coast, Saleyer (q.v.), at the end of the south-eastern peninsula are several islands, of which the most important are Kabaena, Muna, Wowoni, and Buton (q.v.). They are separated from the penin sula by the straits of Tioro and Wowoni, both dangerous. The Banggai, or Peling islands lie off the eastern extremity of Celebes, and though they belong politically to Ternate, geographically they resemble Celebes. In the Gulf of Tomini are the Schilpad islands, extending for nearly 8o miles east and west, the chief of them Talata Koh, Togian and Batu Daka, the Sangi or Sangir islands (q.v.), form the north-east extension of Celebes towards Min danao, in the Philippines, which is continued by the Talaua group, north-east of these. With the adjacent islands, the area of Celebes is estimated at 77,855 sq.m. and without them-69,255 sq.m. The population of Celebes and the islands under its government, in cluding the residency of Menado, was, in 193o, 4,226,586.
Its situation between the two shelves of the Asian and Aus tralian continents makes the geology of Celebes specially in teresting. The broad central block is a complex of igneous rocks, with granite, gneiss, diorite and amphibolite characters, pierced in places by later eruptives, mostly Tertiary. This block is enclosed around its base by Cretaceous rocks, overlaid by Ter tiaries and recent alluvial deposits towards the coasts. In the south-east corner of the block there is a broad band of pre-Ter tiary tuffs, fringed occasionally by coral limestone. The northern part of the Gulf of Boni is widely bordered by Pleistocene and alluvial deposits, resting in the north-east upon late Tertiaries : a band of old plutonic rocks stretches from near Paloppo across the Gulf of Boni and the south-east peninsula to the Gulf of Tolo.
The meridional ridge of Celebes has an axis of crystalline schist, tourmaline quartzite, and glaucophane schist, penetrated and over laid by andesite and basalt, flanked by tuffs, overlaid by late Tertiary Orbitoides limestone. The southern extension from the central block shows late Tertiary limestone, raised in parts, to a height of more than 3,000ft. and portions of the Archaean foun dation are revealed. East of the central block is a faulted and de pressed area of crystalline schists and metamorphosed shales, with gneiss and metamorphic limestones. The south-eastern and east ern peninsulas are, in the main, a broken crustal block with plu tonic rocks. Metamorphics run southwards along the Gulf of Boni inland, a series of Pleistocene to recent rocks passes near to north of Muna island, with no Tertiaries except a small patch on Buton island. Around Mengkoka bay is a fringe of coral lime stone, which borders Kabaena, covers more than two-thirds of Muna, all except the centre of Buton, and all of Wowoni, and the small islands north of it. There are indications of Jurassic rocks south of Lake Matana and metamorphics re-appear in Peling island. The north-eastern peninsula has northern and southern belts. The northern belt consists mostly of sedimentary rocks, Cretaceous or Tertiary, some altered by metamorphism. This belt runs parallel with the coast, and is separated by a parallel fault line from the southern belt, which consists of granites, gneisses, schists and intrusives, with Archaean schists and altered rocks, caught in faults : the valleys are filled with recent deposits.
Older rocks, Cretaceous and Tertiary, are preserved in occasional east and west bands, and in places near the south coast there are fringes of coral limestone. Minahasa is volcanic, and differs struc turally from any other portion of Celebes.
The climate of Celebes is hot, but is tempered by sea winds, which reach every part. Mean temperature ranges between 86° and 72°, with absolute extremes of 94° and 66° : it falls to below 5o° at high altitudes on the mountains. At Palu, on the west coast, rainfall averages only 2o.92in., as compared with 116.1i at Macassar, whilst Menado and Gorontalo, both in the north-eastern peninsula, average, the former 1 o6.48in., and the latter 47.45 only. Macassar averages 132 rainy days annually ; Palu only 77.
In the matter of fauna Celebes is the poorest island in the archi pelago in the number of its species, yet amongst these it has ani mal forms which have no close allies in any other part of the world, except in three of the neighbouring islands—Bachian, Buru and Sulu. Most interesting of these are the babi-rusa, or pig-deer, so named by the Malays from its long and slender legs, and curved tusks, resembling horns, the black, crested baboon (Cynopithe cus nigrescens), akin to the African baboon, and the anoa, or dwarf-buffalo, hunted extensively by the natives for its flesh. There are peculiar varieties of other indigenous animals, including five squirrels, a pig, a deer, two wood-rats and two marsupials. Celebes has a number of peculiar species of parrots, woodpeckers, hawks, cuckoos, hornbills, starlings, flycatchers and pigeons; the Brush turkey is found there. Crocodiles are common, there are snakes of various kinds, and many peculiar species of beetles and butterflies, whilst there is a distinct cleavage between the fresh water fishes of Borneo and Celebes. Although it has species which belong neither to the one nor to the other, the fauna of Celebes is more Asiatic than Australian, and the island is established as a transitional region between the Oriental and Australian zoologi cal regions : it is one of the oldest parts of the Archipelago.
Much of Celebes is still covered with forest, especially around the Gulf of Tolo, where it is almost primeval, and practically without tracks or clearings. The vegetation grows on the sides of precipitous and almost vertical mountain slopes, and the scenery is exceedingly varied and picturesque. "Nowhere in the archipelago," wrote A. R. Wallace, "have I seen such gorges, chasms and precipices as abound in the district of Maros ; in many parts there are vertical or even over-hanging precipices five or six hundred feet high, yet completely clothed with a tapestry of vegetation." The rift valleys are extremely fertile, and there are extensive plateaux, at varying heights, where there is rich pas ture land. The flora shows many resemblances to that of the Philippines, is more Indian in character in the west of the island, and more Australian in the east, and whilst the trees of the lower slopes of the mountains differ strongly from those of Java, and are smaller, the alpine flora is very similar. There are many kinds of palms—fan-leaf, rattan, sago, Arenga saccharifera, which gives fibre for ropes, juice for sugar, and a beverage known as "sagueir;" bamboo, bread-fruit, tamarind and coconut trees flourish, copra being an extensive article of trade. Staple food crops grown are rice (mostly sawah) and maize; sugar-cane, tobacco and vege tables are also raised. The chief crop for export is coffee, and other crops grown for the market are rubber, kapok and nutmegs; copal, damar and rattan are collected, also cattle horns and hides, for export. Fishing for turtles and mother of pearl is carried on extensively, and there is a trade in ebony, sandal-wood and timber of other kinds. Kayulara and Kolaka, two kinds of timber almost impervious to attacks of the pile-worm are found in Celebes, and there is teak on the island of Muna. Gold occurs in Menado, and there are three mines being worked there ; nickel has been found, also iron, copper and lead, and in South Celebes, a little coal.
In Minahasa there are 105 people to the square mile, in other parts of Menado only 3o, and in the rest of the island and depend encies, 37. The coasts are generally well populated: there are large stretches of mountainous territory entirely uninhabited. There are at least six quite different native peoples of Celebes— the Toala, Toraja, Buginese, Macassars, Minahasese and Goron talese. The first-named are found scattered all over the island, sometimes living in communities amongst other races, the result of having been enslaved by them originally. It is thought that they represent the true aborigines of Celebes. They are short and dark and have wavy or curly hair, a broad, flat nose, prominent mouth, and receding chin. They are quite undeveloped and uncivilized, shy, jungle-dwellers, partly nomadic, but quiet good-tempered people, and with a distinct language of their own. The Toraja are a collection of tribes, living in central, south-east and east Celebes. Living in isolated groups, in a very thinly-populated country, they differ very much in development. Of Malayo-Poly nesian stock, and divided into highland and lowland people, in some parts they have intermingled with the Toala ; in others they have come under a Buginese and Macassarese civilizing influence. They are pagan (with an increasing Mohammedan element), are gradually giving up their fortified villages, in very inaccessible positions, for neat little settlements of houses standing each in its own garden, and they are becoming reconciled to the Dutch prohibition of head-hunting and of divination by spear-throwing, but they are unclean, short-lived, and weakly. The mountain peoples are more strongly built than those of the plains, with more prominent cheek-bones, thinner lips, and smaller eyes. Both have large mouths, thick lips, and, usually, a broad nose, skin varying from light to dark brown, and smooth, black hair, worn long. They are lazy, the women working harder than the men, but cour teous and good-tempered, when their confidence has been gained. They are agriculturists, with only a few industries, such as plait ing, pottery, wood-carving and iron-working. Bark clothing is worn in remote districts, and Malayan style cotton garments where there is contact with superior races: many ornaments are worn, and teeth are filed. Society is organized on the family basis, and the tribe is an extension of the family, a man choosing a wife from another branch of his own family. There are no social distinctions, or tribal chiefs, and woman has, comparatively, a high position amongst the Toraja, being able to choose her own husband. They collect forest produce, and grow rice, possess their own language, with many dialects, and Christian schools are well received by them. The Buginese and Macassars are probably of Toraja de scent, came into touch with Hindu culture in Southern Celebes, their home, and later were converted to Islam. They are now all Mohammedans, but with traces of Hinduism and paganism. Well built, fairly light-skinned, and energetic, they are very keen trad ers, of very moderate morality, proud, passionate and vindictive, devoted to feasting, gambling and cock-fighting. As ship-builders and seafarers, they are unsurpassed in the Archipelago ; their excellent prahus are to be found everywhere in Malayan seas. Society is both endogamic and exogamic, with survivals of a ma triarchate, but Mohammedan law and customs are displacing all others. Both peoples are abstemious, feed chiefly on rice, maize and fish, eating buffalo flesh on festive occasions only: clothing is Malayan in style. They are extremely industrious, but their in dustries are not in a high state of development. Weaving is one of the chief ; cotton sarongs, of fine material, being exported in large numbers from Mandar. Plaited goods of superior quality are made in Boni, gold and silver-smiths are mostly in Macassar, Gowa, Mandar and Boni, ironworkers in Luwu, Laiwui and Mandar, whilst shipbuilders flourish in Pambauwang, the Bira regency, and elsewhere. Forest produce is collected, buffaloes, cattle and horses are kept, hunting and fishing are indulged in, for pleasure and as a means of livelihood, and their sea-carrying trade thrives in spite of steamship competition. A peculiar written alphabet, shared by Buginese and Macassars, is used also by some of the tribes of northern Celebes, and by people of Sumbawa. The Macassar language and Buginese, to which it is very nearly allied, belong to the Malayo-Javanese group. Arabic letters are now being used for religious literature, and books in Arabic are read. There is a slight native literature, historical, legal, epistolary, and poetical. The Buginese and Macassars, like other races in Celebes and throughout the Archipelago, are adopting Malay as a lingua franca, and are encouraged therein by Dutch authority. The Minahasese are quite distinct in type from the other inhabitants of Celebes, they are closely related to the people of the islands of Siau and Sangi, and are probably part of an immigrant race from the north which settled here, and in the Philippines, of partly Cau casian type. They have a very light skin (some of the women have red cheeks and lips), lighter than any other race in the Archipelago, high nose, prominent lips, eyes widely separated, stiff, short, black hair and pleasant features, and they are tall and strong. Like the Maoris, a few generations back they were a savage, warlike race, constantly engaged in raids and head hunting. European influence has completely eliminated this, and today the Minahasese are Christian, live in European style (each village has its church and school), are cleanly, sober and indus trious, make good soldiers, being used extensively in the Dutch Colonial army and police, and compete successfully with Am boinese and Eurasians as clerks, schoolmasters, etc. They have a native tongue, but Malay and Dutch are superseding it. Their territory proper is in the extreme north and north-east, cultivation (coffee, coconuts and spices are grown largely), is in the European style, and their numbers do not exceed 200,000. The Gorontalese, who live in the west and south of the north-eastern peninsula, are of the Toraja family, not related to the Minahasese, and largely Mohammedan, a short, smooth-haired, and rather light-skinned people, with a marked difference between the people of the coast and inland. They are agriculturists (rice, maize, coconuts and tobacco are grown), forest products collected, and weaving and plaiting are carried on, some of the finest materials in Celebes being produced. They are neither strong nor very industrious ; preponderance of women has encouraged extensive polygamy. In numbers they are estimated at about 125,000. Pagan (inland) and Mohammedan coastal tribes live on Banggai and Peleng.
For administfative purposes Celebes is divided into two sep arate divisions—the government of Celebes, with dependencies (south-eastern, southern peninsulas and islands, and the west coast), and the residency of Menado (the north-eastern peninsula and the coast of the Gulf of Tomini) : the eastern peninsula, and the Banggai islands belong, politically, to the residency of Ter nate. The population of Celebes and dependencies is composed of 4,017 Europeans and Eurasians, 16,576 foreign Asiatics, including Chinese and Arabs, and 2,450,551 natives. The population is much larger on the coasts than inland. The chief port and trade centre and the seat of the Governor is Macassar (q.v.), with a population of 53,699. All the other towns of any importance of Celebes, quite small in comparison with Macassar, are on the coast, for communications hardly exist inland, although the whole country is under direct Dutch rule, with some modifica tion in a few districts of Menado and in the two small States of Luwu and Wajo, where the "short declaration" applies. Authority is enforced by officials on tour and just suffices to pave the way for civilization. Bonthain, on the south coast, is a small port and trade centre (population 2,302), such, also, are Pare-Pare, Barru, Mamudyu, Simpaga and Donggala, on the west coast, the last named of most importance (population 2,344), and the seat of an Assistant-Resident. On the Gulf of Boni are Kajang, Palima, Desu Bay, Palopo and Kolaka, and on the east coast and Gulf of Tolo—Kendari, Salabanka, Bunku, Koloneday and Luwuk, and on the southern shore of the Gulf of Tomini—Pagimana, Bunta, Posso and Parigi. Some of these places are very small, but all are ports of call for ships of the Royal Packet Navigation Com pany and trade centres, zones of collection for great tracts of the hinterland. Menado has a population of 967,52o, including 2,151 Europeans and Eurasians, and 17,795 foreign Asiatics. The chief port and centre of administration is Menado (q.v.), in the extreme north-east, on Menado Bay, with a population of 22,767. Unlike the rest of Celebes, Menado has centres of population inland, on plateaux amongst the mountains, and of these Tondano (2,000f t. ), and near the lake and river of the same name, is the chief, with a population of 14,167. It has a cool, refreshing climate, and, situated amidst beautiful mountain scenery, is quite a health resort. A pretty little town near by is Tomohon, a few hundred feet higher, which has a training school for native girls and a training college for native preachers, and a wireless station. Gor ontalo, on the south coast of the peninsula, is a very important port and trade centre. It has an excellent harbour, with a magnifi cent approach, mountain ridges, thickly clad with vegetation run ning down to the shore, on either side of the narrow Gorontalo bay. (Lake Limboto is not far distant.) It has a population of 3,498, does a busy trade in copra, coffee and other products, and, like Menado, is in direct touch with ports in Java, Singapore and principal world ports. Small ports on the north coast are Amu rang, on the bay of that name, and with a safe anchorage in all weathers, Kwandang, on Kwandang bay, having ruins of an old fort, and Palehleh, a centre for the gold-mining district, near by; on the south-east coast are Kema, Buna and Jiko: on the west coast, Sabang. All these ports are served by vessels of the Royal Packet Navigation Company. There is a short government-oper ated tramway (47km. long), from Macassar to Takalar, but sea transport provides the principal, and in most parts, the only means of communication, though motor roads exist in Menado and southern Celebes. Macassar has cable communication with Java, Menado with Borneo, and Gorontalo with Ternate (Moluc cas) ; there is a telegraph line between Amurang and Menado, and Macassar, Menado and Gorontalo have telephone systems. Im ports and exports were respectively, in 1926, for Menado 12, 613,909 and 27,664,673 guilders, and for Celebes and dependencies and 41,112,813 guilders.
The Portuguese appear to have discovered and established some influence in Celebes in 1512 when they were monopolizing the spice trade of the Moluccas. The sultan of Macassar, as head of the State of Gowa (south-western Celebes) favoured the Portu guese, and the English, who later attempted to get a footing in Celebes. This annoyed the Dutch, who defeated the sultan early in the 17th century, though the Portuguese helped him. In 1607 a Dutch settlement at Macassar began to establish a firm trade footing in southern Celebes. The Dutch then used the sultan to check the power of Ternate in the Moluccas, and with their friend ship he was able to subdue Boni, a rival state in south-east Celebes, and to hold Luwu, but he grew too powerful, and the Dutch conquered the island of Tidore in spite of a Macassarese fleet. War with Gowa, interrupted only by indecisive treaties, lasted till 1667, when the Dutch Admiral Speelman crushed Gowa and the Macassarese, with help from Boni, and imposed the Bongay treaty. Gowa abandoned all claims to supremacy, surrendered lands to the Dutch East India Company, left to it trade monopoly, and fell into decay. Boni's growth in power led the Dutch later to protect the independence of Gowa but the Dutch used their Buginese allies of Boni in the early wars in Java, and during the British occupation of Java, Raffles had to send an expedition to Celebes against the unruly Buginese in Boni. When Dutch power in Java was re stored, a Dutch expedition had to be sent to Boni, but it was not until 1848 that Boni submitted to the Bongay treaty in a revised form. The treaty was not kept and a second expedition, in made Boni a fief of the Netherlands Government, whilst part of its territory was ceded to the Dutch. The last prince, La Pa wowoni Kraeng Segeri, refused in 1905 to pay certain dues and interfered with other States, and he was banished, and Boni then lost its independence completely. About the same time Gowa interfered in another part of Celebes. The Dutch sent troops and in 1911, Gowa, too, was incorporated in Dutch territory. The State of Luwu signed the Bongay treaty in 1667, but it was not until after the Boni War, in 1861, that the Dutch succeeded in establishing any real influence there and there was some trouble in 1886 over the refusal of Luwu to pay a fine for the murder of some shipwrecked sailors on its coast, but in 1905 it agreed to abide by the "short declaration," which then was also applied to the State of Wajo, likewise a signatory of the Bongay treaty, but which had at times been in open revolt, often in trouble with Boni, and had experienced serious internal disorder as recently as 1902. Menado was first colonized by the Spaniards, on the northern coast, and settlers were attracted from neighbouring islands. The sultan of Ternate also claimed suzerainty over it, and fairly early in the 17th century the Dutch entered into relations with the natives of the country to protect them from both Spaniards and Ternate. In 1657 the present capital and fort were built, at Menado, and a trade agreement was signed for the delivery of a certain amount of iron-wood annually. In 1677 the Sangi and Talaua islands, and later, certain small kingdoms on the north coast, were placed under the rule of the Dutch Governor of Ter nate, and from that time onwards Dutch influence expanded, until direct Dutch rule over Minahasa only was extended to the Goron talo lands and the Sangi islands, and today all Menado is under direct rule, with the exception of a few small kingdoms, with which a satisfactory agreement has been made.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. A. R. Wallace, The Malay Archipelago (1890) ; Bibliography. A. R. Wallace, The Malay Archipelago (1890) ; P. and F. Sarasin, Reisen in Celebes (Wiesbaden, 1905) ; F. Sarasin, Versuch einer Anthropologie der Insel Celebes (Wiesbaden, 1906) ; Handbook of the Netherlands East Indies Department of Agriculture, Industry and Commerce, Buitenzorg. (E. E. L.)