CHAGRES, a village of the Republic of Panama, on the Atlantic coast of the Isthmus, at the mouth of the Chagres river, and about 8 m. W. of Colon. It has a harbour from 1 o to 12 ft. deep, which is difficult to enter, however, on account of bars at its mouth. The port was discovered by Columbus in 1502, and was opened for traffic with Panama, on the Pacific coast, by way of the Chagres river, in the 16th century. With the decline of Porto Bello in the 18th century Chagres became the chief Atlantic port of the Isthmus, and was at the height of its importance dur ing the great rush of gold-hunters across the Isthmus to California in 1849 and the years immediately following. With the completion of the Panama railway in 18J5, however, travel was diverted to Colon, and Chagres soon became a village of miserable huts, with no evidence of its former importance. On a high rock at the mouth of the river stands the castle of Lorenzo, which was de stroyed by Sir Henry Morgan when he captured the town in 1671, but was rebuilt soon afterwards by the Spaniards. Chagres was again captured in 1740 by British forces under Admiral Edward Vernon.
an American method of handling convicts, working principally on State road construction, stone quarrying and bridge building in the States of Virginia, North Carolina, Georgia, Florida and Alabama. The convicts are generally housed in temporary buildings of rough construction with inadequate sanitary arrangements, and are more or less isolated. In Virginia and Alabama the buildings are of a portable type, similar in con struction to an army barrack. In some instances in Georgia a steel wagon cage is used. These cages are about 18 ft. long and 10 ft. wide and sometimes house as many as 18 men, sleeping in triple-decked bunks. The housing conditions differ in the several States, Alabama having by far the best conditions. In all of the camps except Alabama some method of chaining the men who are not trusties is in use. The most common method is the use of the "bull-chain," 4 ft. long, weighing about 3 lb., which is attached to a heavy iron cuff riveted around the right ankle. In going to and from work and during the time the convicts are confined in their quarters, the end of the bull-chain is attached to a long master chain which keeps all of the convicts leashed together. Some times, especially in the case of men who have attempted to or who have escaped and been returned, step-chains are used in ad dition to the bull-chain. These are attached by the use of leg irons, to both ankles, and are from 15 in. to 22 in. in length. Harsh methods of punishment prevail, ranging from solitary con finement on diminished rations to whipping, and, in Georgia, to the use of antiquated stocks and sweat-boxes. While, due to the long outdoor season, the labour of chain-gangs affords a great saving in the cost of road construction and is valuable in the prevention of idleness on the part of prisoners, the chaining of the men cannot help but have a definite demoralizing effect. In addition to the State chain-gangs there are in many localities similar county chain-gangs. (W. B. Co.)