CHINA - THE EFFECT OF BUDDHISM The New Religious Factor.—It was, however, in religious rather than secular art, that the period achieved its greatest aesthetic triumphs. This was due to the introduction of Buddhism from India. The effect of this upon China and her neighbours throughout all subsequent history has been incalculable, and may well be compared to the effect on Europe of the introduction of Christianity. The famous early Buddhist sculpture of Gandhara, in north-western India, reached its maximum development about the 2nd century, but in its pure form spread only as far as eastern Turkistan. The art which now developed in northern China under the Toba Tatar or North Wei dynasty (A.D. 386-636) was no direct outgrowth of this. It must have flowered locally under the stimulus of the new religious faith, although naturally finding inspiration for certain of its elements in Indian, Iranian or even Hellenistic ideas which reached China by the great Central Asiatic caravan-routes. It is best exemplified by the remarkable series of sculptured grottoes of Yiin-kang in northern Shansi and Lung men in Honan, in regions where the North Wei power successively centred. Its best work is characterized by slimness of figure, rhythmic grace of curve and that passionless, spiritual calm and benevolence which are the essence of Buddhism.
Very little later, mainly under the local Liang dynasty (502 557), the new influence also reached China by the sea-route through the Straits of Malacca. This latter movement, originating chiefly in southern India, brought with it an art little affected by that of Gandhara, but reflecting rather that of the great Maurya dynasty of the 3rd century B.C. Among the elements which it intro duced were the fluted column and great and vigorously executed winged lions ; examples of both these still survive, much mutilated, in the vicinity of Nanking, the capital of the Liang dominions. Little is yet known of this southern Buddhist art of China, partly because of the tremendous destruction of its works wrought by the Taiping rebellion of the middle of the i 9th century, but partly too because it has hitherto attracted less attention than that of the north.
The heterogeneous mass of animism, folk-lore, and magic which formed the religion of the masses in feudal days was liberated by the destruction of the nobility, and acquired great influence during much of the Ch'in and Han Dynasties. Gradually organized into the system known as Taoism, it borrowed from Buddhism not merely its temples, festivals and whole paraphernalia of wor ship, but also its art, notably its sculpture. Its works, however, are much cruder in every way, and artistic merit of any sort is exceptional.
Buddhist sculpture now attained its highest pitch; naturalism replaced conventionality, and heads, instead of reflecting an im personal and purely spiritual ideal, became individual portraits, Painting also underwent a noteworthy development. To this period belongs Wu Tao-tzu, greatest of all Chinese painters, whose style has exerted enormous influence upon all later times, not only in China, but also in Japan. Two schools appeared, a northern and a southern, and landscape was now seriously developed. Almost all the authentic existing T'ang dynasty paintings are religious in character ; but fortunately a very few secular examples survive, while others are known through copies by artists of later periods. In pottery also the T'ang period reached a higher stage than hitherto. Glazes were increased in range of colour and texture. The forms themselves are predominantly native, although in some cases they reflect western influences, especially that of Sassanid Persia. T'ang grave figures are well known for their artistic merits as well as their great archaeological interest. Bronze, long since displaced by iron for the manufacture of weapons and tools, was in greater favour than ever in the arts, notably for the casting of Buddhist statues and statuettes, often richly gilt. Ivory from southern China and Indo-China and jade from Turkistan were carved into a variety of ornamental shapes. Although probably already known in principle, engraving on wood now makes its first definite appearance. The T'ang period is also noteworthy for the great extension of Chinese culture which then took place into southern China, till then only partially assimilated, and also into Korea and Japan. The dynasty, after a long period of decadence, came to an end early in the loth century.
The Sung Dynasty.—Af ter another period of turmoil, which however lasted only half a century, China was again united, under the Sung dynasty, which maintained its sway over the whole country for slightly over a century and a half. Then, through Tartar aggression, its power was restricted for a further similar period to that part of the country situated south of the Yangtse river, until it was finally overthrown by the Mongols about 1280.
During the Sung period the influence of Buddhism greatly declined, being replaced by Confucianism, and probably as a result of this, sculpture became decadent. Painting, on the other hand, reached heights never attained before. Landscape under went its greatest development, the effort being not to depict a scene exactly, but to reveal its inward spirit and arouse a corre sponding emotion. Taoism, through its love of solitude and con templation, provided Sung painting with many of its most romantic concepts. Thus there arose in China an appreciation of the beauties of nature, later imparted to Japan but unknown in Europe until the 19th century. Authentic pictures of this period, while more numerous than those of the Tang, are nevertheless very rare. During this extremely artistic epoch, pottery also underwent a great development, losing, it is true, something of the strength and vigour of the best T'ang examples, but acquiring nevertheless a characteristic tastefulness in form and delicacy of finish.
Northern China, controlled by successive Tartar powers during much of the 12th century, was conquered soon after the opening of the i3th by the Mongols who overran so much of the Old World at that time. Half a century later they also subdued the realm of the Southern Sungs, and China was thus reunited under their rule. The art of their time has little to distinguish it from that of the periods before or after, although perhaps in some instances their adoption of Lamaistic Buddhism has left a visible impress. It was then that began that tendency to resort to an tiquity for models which later became so pronounced. Shortly after the middle of the i4th century an outburst of popular fury drove out the decadent later Mongols and led to the accession of the Ming dynasty, the last native Chinese ruling house.