CHINESE LANGUAGE. In treating of Chinese, it will be convenient to distinguish, broadly, the spoken from the written language because for reasons connected with the peculiar nature of the script, the two soon began to move along independent and largely divergent lines.
Although Chinese, like other living languages, must have under gone gradual changes in the past, so little can be stated with certainty about these changes that an accurate survey of its evolution is quite out of the question. Obviously a different method is required when we come to the written characters. We have hardly any clue as to how Chinese was spoken or pronounced in any given district 2,000 years ago, although there are written remains dating from long before that time and in order to gain an insight into the structure of the char acters now existing, it is necessary to trace their origin and devel opment.
yet differing widely from one another. Most of these dialects fringe the coast-line of China, and penetrate but a comparatively short way into the interior. Starting from the province of Kwangtung in the south, where the Cantonese and, farther in land, the Hakka dialects are spoken, and, proceeding northwards, we pass in succession the following dialects: Swatow, Amoy (these two may almost be regarded as one), Foochow, Wenchow, Ning po and Wu. Farther north the great dialect popularly known as Mandarin (Kuanhua or "official language"), sweeps round be hind the narrow strip of coast occupied by the various dialects above-mentioned, and dominates a hinterland constituting nearly four-fifths of China proper. Mandarin, of which the dialect of Peking, the capital 1421 to 1928, is now the standard form, com prises a considerable number of sub-dialects, some of them so closely allied that the speakers of one are wholly intelligible to the speakers of another, while others (e.g., the vernaculars of Yang chow, Hankow or Mid-China and Ssu-ch'uan) may almost be considered as separate dialects. Cantonese is supposed to approximate most nearly to the primitive language of antiquity, whereas Pekingese perhaps has receded farthest from it. For all practical purposes Mandarin, in the widest sense of the term, is by far the most important as the native speech of the majority of Chinese and the recognized vehicle of oral communication between all Chinese officials, even when they come from the same part of the country and speak the same patois. All examples of phraseology in this article will therefore be given in Pekingese.
by members of the same race, are united by the bond of writing, the common possession of all, and share alike in the two most salient features of Chinese as a whole: (1) they are all mono syllabic, that is, each individual word consists of only one syllable; and (2) they are strikingly poor in vocables, or separate sounds for the conveyance of speech. The number of these vocables varies from between Boo and goo in Cantonese to no more than 420 in the vernacular of Peking. This scanty number is eked out by interposing an aspirate between certain initial consonants and the vowel, so that for instance p'u is distinguished from pu. The latter is pronounced with little or no emission of breath, the "p" approximating the farther north one goes (e.g., at Niuchwang) more closely to a "b." The aspirated p'u is pronounced more like our interjection " Pooh!" The number of vocables in Pekingese has slowly but surely diminished. Thus the initials is and k, when followed by the vowel i (with its continental value) have gradually become softer and more assimilated to each other, and are now both pronounced ch. Again, all con sonantal endings in t and k, such as survive in Cantonese and other dialects, have entirely disappeared from Pekingese, and n and ng are the only final consonants remaining. Vowel sounds, on the other hand, have been proportionately developed, such compounds as ao, ia, iao, iu, ie, ua occurring with especial fre quency. One and the same sound has therefore to do duty for different words. Some sounds may have fewer meanings than ten attached to them, but others will have many more. Thus the following represent only a fraction of the total number of words pronounced shih (something like the "shi" in shirt) : " history," * " to employ," "a corpse," f l " a market," ig "an army," "a lion," ' "to rely on," 1- "to wait
"poetry," a " time," a " to know," big " to bestow," ;% " to be," "solid," : "to lose," i• "to proclaim," "to look at," - "ten,"q
pick up," "stone," "generation," fi" to eat," " a house," jk " a clan," AA
ff " to let go," ,4 "to test," "affair," VI. "power," ± "officer," " to swear," ig " to pass away," "to happen." Use of Couplets.—To supplement this deficiency of sounds several devices are employed through the combination of which confusion is avoided. One of these devices is the coupling of words in pairs in order to express a single idea. There is a word ko which means "elder brother." But in speaking, the sound ko alone would not always be easily understood in this sense. One must either reduplicate it and say ko-ko, or prefix
"great ") and say ta-ko. Simple reduplication is mostly confined to family appellations and such adverbial phrases as tiq_.
man,
But in a much larger class of pairs, each of the two components has the same meaning. Examples are: 5 k'ung-p'a, "to be afraid," * a kao-su,
tell," IN 7(C shu-mu, " tree," J p'i f u, "skin,"
man-ying, " full,"
ku-tu, "solitary." Sometimes the two parts are not exactly synonymous, but together make up the sense required. Thus in i-shang, "clothes," i denotes more particularly
worn on the upper part of the body, and shang those on the lower part. In another very large class of expressions, the first word serves to limit and determine the special meaning of the second: j } " milk-skin," "cream "; A ; " fire-leg," " ham "; "lamp-cage," "lantern"; If "sea-waist," "strait." There
besides, a number of phrases which are harder to classify. Thus, hu means "tiger." But in any case where ambiguity might arise, lao-hu, "old tiger," is used instead of the monosyllable. I (another hu) is "fox," and : li, an animal belonging to the smaller cat tribe. Together, hu-li, they form the usual term for fox. chih tao is literally " to know the way," but has come to be used simply for the verb "to know." These pairs or two word phrases are of such frequent occurrence, that the Chinese spoken language might almost be described as bi-syllabic. Suffixes or enclitics are attached to many of the commonest nouns. :C nu is the word for "girl," but in speech t nt -tzu or t nu-'rh is the form used. and both mean child, and must originally have been diminutives. The suffix 50, be longs especially to the Peking vernacular. The use of numera tives is quite a distinctive feature of the language. The common est of them, 4tti ko, can be used indifferently in connection with almost any class of things, animal, vegetable or mineral. But there are other numeratives (at least 20 or 3o in everyday use) which are strictly reserved for limited classes of things with specific attributes. mei, for instance, is the numerative of circular objects such as coins and rings; IA k'o of small globular objects—pearls, grains of rice, etc.; I:1 k'ou classifies things which have a mouth—bags, boxes and so forth; ft. chien is used of all kinds of affairs; chang of chairs and sheets of paper; chih (literally half a pair) is the numerative for various animals, parts of the body, articles of clothing and ships; IE pa for things which are grasped by a handle, such as fans and knives.
The tones may be defined as regular modulations of the voice by means of which different inflections can be im parted to the same sound. To the foreign ear, a Chinese sentence spoken slowly with the tones clearly brought out has a certain sing-song effect. It is absurd to suppose the tones were deliber ately invented in order to fit each written character with a separate sound. It is considered that tones were the automatic result of the elision of prefixes, some of which as elsewhere may have served as classifiers. A tone is as much an integral part of the word to which it belongs as the sound itself ; like the sound, too, it is not fixed once and for all, but is in a constant, though very gradual state of evolution. This is proved by the great differences of intonation in the dialects. Theoretically, four tones have been distinguished (the even, the rising, the sinking and the entering) each of which falls again into an upper and a lower series. But only the Cantonese dialect possesses all these eight varieties of tone (to which a ninth has been added), while Pekingese has only four: the even upper, the even lower, the rising and the sinking. It appears that down to the 3rd century B.C. the only tones distinguished were the T. " even," J "rising" and A "entering" Between that date and the 4th century A.D. the 1- sinking tone was developed. In the i i th century the even tone was divided into upper and lower, and a little later the entering tone finally disappeared from Pekingese. For centuries their existence was unsuspected, the first systematic classification of them being associated with the name of Shen Yo, a scholar who lived A.D. 441-513. The Emperor Wu Ti one day said to him: " Come, tell me, what are these famous four tones? " " They are td whatever your Majesty pleases to make them," replied Shen Yo, skilfully selecting for his answer four words which illustrated, and in the usual order, the four tones in ques tion. Not every single word in a sentence must necessarily be given its full tonic force. Quite a number of words, such as the enclitics, are not intonated at all. In others the degree of em phasis depends partly on the tone itself, partly on its position in the sentence. In Pekingese the 3rd tone (really the 2nd in the ordinary series, the ist being subdivided into upper and lower) is particularly important, and next to it in this respect comes the 2nd (that is, the lower even, or 2nd division of the 1st). It may be said, roughly, that any speaker whose 2nd and 3rd tones are correct will at any rate be understood, even if the ist and 4th are slurred over.
A page of printed Chinese or carefully writ ten manuscript consists of a number of wholly independent units, each of which would fit into a small square, and is called a character. These characters are arranged in columns, beginning on the right-hand side of the page and running from top to bottom. They are words, standing for articulate sounds ex pressing root-ideas, but, unlike our words, are not composed of alphabetical elements or letters. Clearly, if each character were a distinct and arbitrarily constructed symbol, only those gifted with exceptional powers of memory could ever hope to read or write with fluency. This, however, is far from being the case. Most Chinese characters are susceptible of some kind of analysis. Means of communication other than oral began with the use of knotted cords, similar to the quipus (q.v.) of ancient Mexico and Peru, and were displaced later on by the practice of notching or scoring rude marks on wood, bamboo and stone. The first four numerals, as written with simple horizontal strokes date from this early period. In Chinese writing, a few characters, even in their present form are pictures of objects, pure and simple. Thus, for "sun" the ancient Chinese drew a circle with a dot in it: 0, now modified into fl ; for "moon" 4., now JJ ; for " God" they drew the anthropomorphic figure , which in its modern form appears as ; for "mountains" t,, now ai ; for "child" now g-; for "fish " 0, now At ; for " mouth " a round hole, now q ; '' for "hand "now ; for "well" 13, now written without the dot. These picture-characters, then, accumulated little by little, until they comprised all the common objects which could be easily and rapidly delineated—sun, moon, stars, various animals, certain parts of the body, tree, grass and so forth to the number of two or three hundred. The next step was to a few compound pictograms : Fl the sun just above the horizon = " dawn "; trees side by side = "a forest"; Zu a mouth with something solid coming out of it = " the tongue "; a a mouth with vapour or breath coming out of it = " words." While writing was still in its infancy, it must have occurred to the Chinese to join together two or more pictorial characters in order that their association might suggest to the mind some third thing or idea. "Sun" and "moon" combined in this way make the character
which means "bright"; woman and child make Af "good"; "fields" and "strength" (that is, labour in the fields) produce the character 3 "male"; the "sun" seen through "trees" A designates the east; has been explained as (I) a "pig" under a "roof," the Chinese idea, common to the Irish peasant, of home, and also (2) as "several persons" under "a roof," in the same sense; a "woman" under a "roof " makes the character "peace"; "words" and "tongue" et naturally suggest "speech"; two hands (A, in the old form g;) indicate friendship; "woman" and "birth" = "born of a woman," means " clan-name," showing that the ancient Chinese traced through the mother and not through the father. This class of characters, correctly called ideograms, as representing ideas and not objects, is comparatively small. As there was nothing in the character per se which gave the slightest clue to the sound of the word it represented, each character had to be learned and recognized by a separate effort of memory. The first step in a new, and, ultimately the right direction, was the borrowing of a character already in use to represent another word identical in sound, though different in meaning. Owing to the scarcity of vocables there might be as many as ten different words in com mon use, each pronounced fang. Out of those ten only one, we will suppose, had a character assigned to it—viz., h' "square" (originally said to be a picture of two boats joined together) . But among the other nine was fang, meaning "street" or " locali ty," in such common use that it became necessary to have some means of writing it. Instead of inventing an altogether new character, as they might have done, the Chinese took hj " square" and used it also in the sense of "locality." This was a simple expedient, no doubt, but one that applied on a large scale would lead to confusion. The difficulty which presented itself was overcome as in speech by adding to fang "square," another part meaning "earth," in order to show that the fang in question had to do with location on the earth's surface. The whole character thus appeared as M. Nothing was easier now than to provide signs for the other words pronounced fang. "A room " was N.
door fang; "to spin" was At silk fang; "fragrant" was herbs fang; "to enquire" was words fang; "an embankment," and hence " to guard against," was j mound fang; " to hinder " was j woman fang. This class of characters, which constitutes at least nine-tenths of the language, has received the convenient name of phonograms. The formation of the phonogram, or pho netic compound, did not always proceed along such simple lines as in the examples given above. In the first place, most of the phonetics now existing are not simple pictograms, but themselves more or less complex characters made up in a variety of ways. Again, the sound is in most cases given by no means exactly by the so-called phonetic, a fact chiefly due to the pronunciation having undergone changes which the written character was in capable of recording. There are extreme cases in which a phonetic provides hardly any clue at all as to the sound of its derivatives. In general, the "final" or rhyme is pretty accurately indicated, while in not a few cases the phonetic does give the exact sound for all its derivatives. A considerable number of phonetics are nearly or entirely obsolete as separate characters, although their family of derivatives may be a very large one. VA, for instance, is never seen by itself, yet v, and are among the most important characters in the language.
The whole body of Chinese characters, then, may conveniently be divided up, for philological purposes, into pictograms, ideo grams and phonograms. The first are pictures of objects, the second are composite symbols standing for abstract ideas, the third are compound characters of which the more important element simply represents a spoken sound. In a strict sense, even the first two classes do not directly represent either objects or ideas, but rather stand for sounds by which these objects and ideas have previously been expressed. It may, in fact, be said that Chinese characters are "nothing but a number of more or less ingenious devices for suggesting spoken words to a reader." The "Six Scripts."—The Chinese themselves at a very early date (probably many centuries B.c.) evolved a six-fold classifica tion of characters, the so-called 7 liu shu, very inaccurately translated by the Six Scripts, which may be briefly noticed: I.a chih ship, indicative or self-explanatory characters.This is a very small class, including only the simplest numerals and a few others such as j "above" and j "below." 2. 311 hsiang hsing, pictographic characters.
3. hsing sheng or a hsieh slang, phonetic compounds.
hui i, suggestive compounds based on a natural association of ideas. To this class alone can the term "ideo graphs " be properly applied.
5. ft tt chuan c.'zu. The meaning of this name has been much disputed, some saying that it means "turned round"; e.g., mu" eye" is now written H. Others understand it as comprising a few groups of characters nearly related in sense, each character consisting of an element common to the group, together with a specific and detachable part ; e.g., Z, 4 and a, all of which have the meaning "old." This class is concerned only with peculiari ties in the use of characters.
6. iNf: chid chieh, borrowed characters, that is, characters adopted for different words simply because of the identity of sound. The period of "borrowed characters" did not last very long, though traces of it are thought to be seen in the habit of writing several characters, especially those for certain plants and animals, indifferently with or without their radicals.
In the earliest inscriptions (Shang dy nasty, i8th century B.c.), the so-called - Z ku-wen or "ancient figures," all the above-mentioned forms occur. None are wholly pictorial, with one or two unimportant ex-.
ceptions. In the following specimen only the last character is unmistakably pictorial: This is read: 43
"Shen made [this] precious ting." In 1903 a large number of inscribed bone fragments were excavated in the north of China, which have furnished a list of nearly 2, 50o separate characters, of which not more than about 600 have been so far identified. They appear to be re sponses given by professional soothsayers to private individuals who came to them seeking the aid of divination in the affairs of their daily life. The bones were ancient but some at least of the inscriptions have been forged. It is
fix their date with much exactitude. The script, though less archaic than that of the earlier bronzes, is of an exceedingly free and irregular type. Some attribute them to the Shang, or Yin dynasty (1766-1'22 B.C.) in accord with Chinese tradition. Others think that they represent a mode of writing already obsolete at the time of their production, and retained of set purpose by the diviners from obscurantist motives, dating them about 500 years later, or only half a century before the birth of Confucius, long after the appearance of a new and more conventionalized form of writing, called in Chinese chuan, which is commonly rendered by the word Seal, for the reason that many ages afterwards it was generally adopted for use on seals. Under the Chou dynasty, as well as the two succeeding it, the meaning of the word was not "seal," but "sinuous curves," as made in writing. This epoch possibly marks the first introduction into China of the brush in place of the bamboo or wooden pencil with frayed end which was used with some kind of colouring matter or varnish, and the introduction of a supple implement like the brush at the very time when the forms of characters were fast becoming crystallized and fixed, would account for a great revolution in the style of writing. Authentic specimens of the
chuan, older or Greater Seal writing, are exceedingly rare. But it is generally believed that the inscriptions on the famous stone drums, now at Peking, date from the reign of King Hsiian, and they may therefore with practical certainty be cited as examples of the Greater Seal in its original form. These "drums," really ten roughly chiselled mountain boulders, were discovered in the early part of the 7th century, lying half buried in the ground near Feng-hsiang Fu in the province of Shensi. On them are engraved ten odes, a corn plete ode being cut on each drum, celebrating an imperial hunting and fishing expedition in that part of the country. Great strides had been made in this writing towards symmetry, compactness and conventionalism. The vogue of the Greater Seal appears to have lasted until the reign of the First Emperor, 22I-2I0 B.C. (see History), when a further modification took place. For many centuries China had been split up into a number of practically independent States, and this circumstance seems to have led to considerable variations in the styles of writing. Having unified the empire, the First Emperor proceeded, on the advice of his minister Li SsiI, to standardize its script by ordaining that only the style in use in his own State of Ch'in should henceforward be employed throughout China. This new style of writing was the Greater Seal characters in the form they had assumed after several centuries of evolution, with numerous abbreviations and modifications. It was afterwards known as the A. hsiao chuan, or Lesser Seal, and is familiar from the Shuo Wen diction ary (see Literature). Though a decided improvement on what had gone before, something less cumbrous was soon felt to be necessary by the clerks who had to supply the immense quantity of written reports demanded by the First Emperor. Thus a simpler and more artistic form of writing was in use, though not universally, not long after the decree abolishing the Greater Seal. This li shu, or "official script," as it is called, shows a great advance on the Seal character. It is perhaps likely to have been directly evolved from the Greater Seal. It differs from the modern character only in minor details. The Lesser Seal was evidently obsolete at the time of the compilation of the Shuo Wen, about ioo years after the Christian era. The Greater Seal and still earlier forms of writing had fallen into utter oblivion before the Han dynasty was 5o years old.
Out of the "official script" two other forms were soon de veloped, viz., the V ts'ao shu, or "grass character" which so curtails the usual strokes as to be comparable to a species of shorthand, requiring special study, and the IT hsing situ or running hand, used in ordinary correspondence. Some form of grass character is mentioned as in use as early as 200 B.C. or thereabouts, though how nearly it approximated to the modern grass hand it is hard to say; the running hand seems to have come several centuries later. The final standardization of Chi nese writing was due to the great calligraphist Wang Hsi-chih of the 4th century, who gave currency to the graceful style of character known as IN k'ai shu, sometimes referred to as the " clerkly hand." When block-printing was invented some centuries later, the characters were cut on this model, which still survives at the present day. The script of China has remained practically unchanged ever since. The manuscript rolls of the T'ang and preceding dynasties, discovered by Sir Aurel Stein in Turkestan, show a style of writing not only clear and legible but remarkably modern in appearance.
No set of rules governing the mutual relations of words has ever been formulated by the Chinese, apparently be cause the need of such rules has never been felt. The most that native writers have done is to draw a distinction between and jj
and "empty words," respectively, the
being subdivided into r ' "living words" or verbs, and "dead words" or noun-substantives. By "empty words" parti cles are meant, though sometimes the expression is loosely applied to abstract terms, including verbs. The above meagre classification is their nearest approach to a conception of gram mar in our sense. Every Chinese character is an indivisible unit, representing a sound and standing for a root-idea. Being free from inflection or agglutination of any kind it is incapable of indicating in itself either gender, number or case, voice, mood, tense or person. No Chinese character can be definitely regarded as being any particular part of speech or possessing any particular function absolutely, apart from the general tenor of its context. Thus, taken singly, the character j. conveys only the general idea " above " as opposed to " below." According to its place in the sentence and the requirements of common sense, it may be a noun meaning " upper person" (that is, a ruler) ; an adjective meaning " upper," " topmost " or " best "; an adverb meaning " above "; a preposition meaning " upon "; and finally a verb meaning " to mount upon," or " to go to." It would puzzle grammarians to determine the precise grammatical function of any of the words in the following sentence, with the exception of (an interrogative, by the way, which here happens to mean " why" but in other contexts is equivalent to "how," "which" or " what ") : "Affair why must ancient," or in more idiomatic English, " Why necessarily stick to the ways of the ancients in such matters? " Or take a proverbial saying like ih
which may be correctly rendered "The less a man has seen the more he has to wonder at." It is one thing, however, to translate it correctly, and another to explain how this translation can be inferred from the individual words, of which the bald equivalents might be given as: " Few what see, many what strange." To say that "strange" is the literal equivalent of $ does not mean that g can be definitely classed as an adjective. On the other hand, it would be dangerous even to assert that the word here plays the part of an active verb, because it would be equally permissible to translate the above, " Many things are strange to one who has seen but little." There are certain positions and collocations of words which tend to recur, but the number of qualifications and exceptions which will have to be added is so great as to render the rule itself valueless. g __Ii means "on a horse," g
get on a horse." But it will not do to say that a preposition becomes a verb when placed before the substantive, as many other prepositions come before and not after the words they govern. If we meet such a phrase as ` 51 literally "warn rebels," we must not mentally label - as a verb and V as a substantive, and say to ourselves that in Chinese the verb is followed immediately by its object. Otherwise, we might be tempted to translate, " to warn the rebels," whereas a little reflection would show us that the conjunction of " warning" and "rebels" naturally leads to the meaning " to warn (the populace or whoever it may be) against the rebels." Each particular passage is best interpreted on its own merits, by the logic of the context and the application of common sense. The beginner must accustom himself to look upon each character as a root-idea, not a definite part of speech.
In the beginning, all characters doubt less represented spoken words, but there was no need to reproduce in writing the bisyllabic compounds of common speech because chien " to see," in its written form , could not possibly be con fused with any other chien, and it was therefore unnecessary to go to the trouble of writing A, k'an-chien "look-see," as in colloquial. All superfluous particles or other words that could be dispensed with were ruthlessly cut away, and all the old classical works were composed in the tersest of language, far removed from the speech of the people. The passion for brevity and conciseness resulted often in such obscurity that detailed commentaries on the classics have always constituted an im portant branch of Chinese literature. After the introduction of the improved style of script, and when the mechanical means of writing had been simplified, literary diction became freer and more expansive, to some extent, but the classics were held in such veneration as to exercise the profoundest influence over all succeeding schools of writers, and the divorce between literature and popular speech became permanent. No book of any first rate literary pretensions would be easily intelligible to any class of Chinese, educated or otherwise, if read aloud exactly as printed. The public reader of stories is obliged to translate, so to speak, into the colloquial of his audience as he goes along. There is no inherent reason why the conversation of every-day life should not be rendered into characters, as is done in foreign handbooks for teaching elementary Chinese; one can only say that the Chinese do not think it worth while. There are a few words, indeed, which, though common enough in the mouths of genteel and vulgar alike, have positively no characters to repre sent them. On the other hand, there is a vast store of purely book words which would never be used or understood in con versation.
special rules of construction. Of these, perhaps the most apparent is the carefully marked antithesis between characters in different clauses of a sentence, which results in a kind of parallelism of rhythmic balance. This parallelism is a noticeable feature in ordinary poetical composition, and may be well illustrated by the following four-line stanza: "N q lj The bright sun completes its course behind the mountains; I 01J. i The yellow river flows away into the sea. 'A
vi Would you command a prospect of a thousand li? j - Climb yet one storey higher." In the first line of this piece, every single character is balanced by a corresponding one in the second:
white by yellow, F1 sun by Pr river, and so on. In the
and 4th lines, where more laxity is generally allowed, every word again has its counterpart, with the sole exception of "wish" and " further." Some of the early Jesuit missionaries, men of great natural ability who steeped themselves in Oriental learning, have left very different opinions on record. Chinese appeared to be as admirable for the superabundant richness of its vocabulary as for the conciseness of its literary style. And among modern scholars there is a decided tendency to accept this view as embodying a great deal more truth than the other.
terminology which closer contact with the West would necessarily carry with it, by the conjunction of two or more characters al ready existing ; of this : Iifdt (rise-descend-machine) for "lift," and (discuss-govern-country-assembly) for "parlia ment" are examples. Even a metaphysical abstraction like the Absolute has been tentatively expressed by (exclude opposite) ; but in this case an equivalent was already existing in the Chinese language.
entire abolition of all characters, to be replaced by their equiva lent sounds in letters of the alphabet. Under this scheme A would figure as jen or yen,
as ma, and so on. But the proposal has fallen extremely flat. The vocables are so few that only the colloquial, if even that, could possibly be transcribed in this manner. Any attempt to transliterate classical Chinese would result in a mere jumble of sounds, utterly unintelligible, even with the addition of tone-marks. There is another aspect of the case. The characters are a potent bond of union between the different parts of the country with their various dialects, and the script, in spite of certain disadvantages, has hitherto tri umphantly adapted itself to the needs of civilized intercourse.
Premare, Notitiae Linguae Sinicae (1831) ; MaBibliography.-P. Premare, Notitiae Linguae Sinicae (1831) ; Ma Kien-chung, Ma ship wen t'ung (1899) ; L. C. Hopkins, The Six Scripts (i88i) and The Development of Chinese Writing (Iwo); H. A. Giles, A Chinese-English Dictionary (and ed., 191o) ; B. Karl gren, Sound and Symbol in Chinese (1923) .
