Cider or Cyder

CIDER or CYDER, as made outside of the United States, is an alcoholic beverage made from apples. It is produced by the vinous fermentation of the expressed juice of the fruit. Although any kind of apples can be used for the purpose, spe cial vintage varieties distinguished by chemical and other char acters which render them unsuited for the most part for table use are required for a beverage of fine quality. The making of cider has been attempted wherever the apple is grown extensively, but a flourishing commercial industry has hitherto been established only in those countries where true vintage fruit can be obtained.

The Cider Districts.—The cider apple orchards of the world are mainly confined to certain districts of France and England.

The former country possesses the largest acreage and ranks as the chief producing centre, its average annual output of fruit being sufficient to permit of a considerable export trade to adjacent countries after home requirements have been satisfied. The cider orchards of France are chiefly concentrated in Normandy and Brittany, where the soil and other local conditions are particularly well suited to produce fruit of a high order of vintage quality. The average annual output of cider in France for the years 1915-24 was 18.4 million hectolitres. In England, where the acreage under cider fruit is also extensive, the orchards are almost entirely confined to the western and south-western counties. The belt of country extending from the counties of Hereford and Worcester in the north and passing through Gloucester and Mon mouth to Somerset and Devon in the south contains by far the greatest number of orchards. In that area, according to the returns of the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, the extent of grass orcharding is approximately ioo,000 ac., of which the major part is planted with cider apple trees. Cider fruit growing has also spread into the counties bordering that area. In other parts of Great Britain the cider industry is limited to a few scattered localities, of which parts of Norfolk, Suffolk and Kent are the most important. Efforts have been made to develop the industry in Ireland with some success, but in this case the quan tity of fruit grown specially for the purpose is small. The cider making industry in Germany has attained considerable dimensions, but it has been in the past to some extent dependent on supplies of imported French fruit. Of the other European countries Spain and Switzerland have obtained some repute as cider producers.

Farm Cider and Factory Cider.

While in France and Ger many the cider industry has long been of considerable commer cial importance and the manufacture of the beverage has been carried on in factories of some magnitude, in England prior to the beginning of the present century cider making was chiefly confined to the farms upon which the fruit was grown. The product was mainly consumed on the farm and the surplus dis posed of in the immediate locality. Except for the ouput of a few old-established factories the distribution and consumption of cider were confined almost exclusively to the west of England. Since then there has been a remarkable change. The introduction of improved methods of making as the result of research and education has led to a marked improvement in the quality of the article placed upon the market, which has been followed by the widespread adoption of cider as a popular beverage throughout the country generally. Many new factories in the cider-making area have been established and a large part of the fruit which used to be made into cider on the farms is now sold by the farmers to the factories. There has been a gradual elimination of making on farms where the product used to be indifferently prepared, and on many of the farms where making is still prac tised the process now receives the skilled attention necessary.

Legal Standards.

As a commercial article English cider has been handicapped by its extreme variability in character. No legal definitions or standards have been imposed and a wide variety of types has therefore been placed upon the market. In France, where hitherto the industry has been of much greater commer cial importance, cider has to conform to a series of regulations defining the respective standards of the beverage to which the name may be applied. These regulations, which came into force in 1908, lay down that no beverage may be offered for sale under the name of cider unless produced exclusively by the fermenta tion of the juice from fresh apples, or a mixture of fresh apples and pears extracted with or without the addition of pure water. The term Cidre pur juice is reserved for cider made without addi tion of water. The name Cidre may only be applied to a beverage containing at least 3.5% by volume of alcohol, actual or potential, 12 grams of dry extract at 100° C (sugar not included) per litre, and 1.2 grams of mineral matter (ash) per litre. All ciders con taining smaller quantities of alcohol, extract and ash than those limits or any of them must be designated as petite cidre. In Eng land, though no corresponding regulations exist, the application of the name of cider to beverages other than those of which apple juice is the basis is an offence under the Merchandise Marks Acts, as illustrated by cases where legal proceedings have been taken successfully against the use of the name for synthetic aerated drinks flavoured with artificial apple essence. The above legal standards do not apply to the United States.

Constituents of Cider.

Even in the most strictly restricted class, that for "pure juice" cider, the French regulations permit a great elasticity in the nature of the beverage offered for sale. The primary reason for variability lies in the nature of the raw material. The more important constituents of apple juice are sugars, malic acid and tannin. Allowing for seasonal effects on composition and the kinds of apples used, and without taking account of extreme cases, the total sugar content of a freshly expressed juice may range from 6 to 20%, the acid from 0.1 to 1.25%, and the tannin from 0.05 to 0.75%. Further, since the extent of the ensuing fermentation is determined by the nitrog enous content of the juice, which also varies widely, it proceeds in some cases till the whole of the sugar is fermented (unless pre vented by special treatment), and in others ceases prematurely and leaves more or less of the sugars unfermented. According to the nature of the juice used, therefore, the finished article may be sweet or dry, strongly or very lightly alcoholic, highly acid or of a very low grade of acidity, and strongly astringent and bitter or almost entirely lacking in that character.

The variations here indicated are attributable primarily to the varieties of apples from which the juice is derived. By a suitable blending of different sorts, juices of any desired standard of com position can be secured. In practice individual makers aim at definite standards suited to the taste of their customers and some degree of uniformity is thus attained : but since the predominating kinds of apples grown in different areas vary widely, and other local influences, such as those of soil and climate, come into play, the ciders of different districts tend to show marked distinctive local characters. French ciders generally are characterized by low acidity and a "bittersweet" flavour. Those of the English cider area north of Bristol are usually light and brisk as compared with the typical heavy sub-acid and bittersweet Somerset ciders and the less heavy but luscious Devon type of rather low acidity and astringency.

Classification of Cider Apples.

The varieties of cider apples are grouped into three classes, commonly termed "sharp," "sweet" and "bittersweet" respectively. The classification is based upon chemical composition. The "sharp" class includes all varieties yielding the juices which normally contain not less than 0.45% of total acid, expressed as malic acid. The latter is the pre dominating acid, but various other organic acids are also present in very small amounts. Varieties of the "sweet" class are char acterized by juices containing normally less than 0.45% of total acid, expressed as malic acid, and also less than 0.2% of "tannin." "Bittersweet" apples contain normally in their juices acids in cor responding amount to those of the "sweet" class, and are spe cially characterized by a relatively large quantity of "tannin," which normally exceeds 0.2%. The term "tannin" is used com prehensively by cider makers to include a group of constituents giving an astringent and bitter flavour to the juice. Chemically they may not all be true tannins.

According to this classification all table varieties of apples, dessert and culinary, fall within the "sharp" class and form a distinct section of it characterized by an extremely low "tannin" content, which rarely exceeds 0.1% in the juice. The typical "sharp" vintage apple contains generally a substantially larger amount. This high-acid, low-tannin character of the eating apple and other features usually associated with that type of composi tion render it inferior for cider making. The number of varieties of cider apple occurring in the orchards of England and France is very large, certainly running into thousands. Many are of very low vintage quality and are being eliminated gradually in favour of those proved by research and experience to be worthy of more extended cultivation. A complete list of the latter is too lengthy for inclusion here, but the following selection is repre sentative of the better English and French varieties.

English varieties : Sharp: Cap of Liberty, Cherry Pearmain, Kingston Black, Old Foxwhelp, Yellow Styre, Skyrme's Kernel, Backwell Red, New Foxwhelp, Ponsford and Dymock Red. Sweet: Woodbine, Eggleton Styre, Sweet Alford, Killerton Sweet and Sweet Coppin. Bittersweet: Belle Norman, Chisel Jersey, Dabinett, Royal Wilding, Strawberry Norman, Yarlington Mill Jersey, Knotted Kernel, Silver Cup, White Close Pippin and Royal Jersey. French varieties : Bedan des Parts, Binet Rouge, Reine des Pommes, Doux Amer, Ecarlatine, Frequin Rouge, Amere de Berthecourt, Reinette Obry, Muscadet, Michelin and Tardive Forestier.

Cider Making.—Modern methods of cider making differ greatly from those of a century ago. Then the fruit was crushed to a pulpy mass by heavy revolving stone rollers in a circular stone trough, similar to a mortar mill, and the pulp transferred by shovels to a clumsy wooden press worked by hand, the time occupied in milling and pressing a single lot of fruit often extend ing over 24 hours. The modern grater form of mill now in gen eral use is a steel cylindrical revolving drum in which are fixed toothed knives in such fashion that their edges project about one-sixteenth of an inch above the surface of the drum. The latter is power-driven at 2,000 revolutions a minute. The fruit falling upon it is grated almost instantaneously to a very fine pulp, from which owing to its extreme state of disintegration the juice can be expressed with great ease and speed. This pulp, technically termed "pomace," is delivered from the mill direct on to the bed of the press, where it is built up into a "cheese," consisting of a series of layers, each wrapped in an open-meshed cloth or net of cotton or other strong fibre and separated from its neigh bours by slatted wooden racks to facilitate the drainage of the juice. Power-driven hydraulic presses have now largely super seded the old screw-type. With machinery of this type the whole series of operations can be completed within 20 minutes after the delivery of the fruit to the mill. With fruit in good condition, a yield of juice varying from 75 to 8o% of weight of the fruit can be obtained.

Juice extracted by this method is comparatively clear and free from fragments of pulp and can therefore be placed directly into fermenting vats or casks without any intervening treatment being required to remove the suspended solid matter. The operation of "keeving," formerly an important stage in the clearing of the juice, is thus no longer necessary and the risk of taint from acetic fermentation greatly reduced.

Subsequent treatment is determined by the type of cider to be produced. If a sweet cider is required, the fermenting juice must be filtered at a comparatively early stage to make it possible to retain the desired percentage of unfermented sugar. If a dry cider is wanted, fermentation is allowed to proceed till the whole or the greater part of the sugar is converted into alcohol: filtra tion is then required for the purpose of clarifying the liquor rather than for checking fermentation. Various types of filters are in use: they differ in constructional details rather than in principle, which consist in the forcing under pressure of the turbid liquor through a thick layer of paper pulp or other suitable fibrous material. In many cases a single filtration suffices to clear the cider to a brilliant condition: occasionally for sweet ciders a second filtration is necessary to prevent further fermentation.

After filtration the cider is fit for consumption at any time, though age, within limits, brings improvement in flavour. Made by the process here outlined, cider generally requires filtration within three months of the time of milling and is in its best con dition for consumption during the summer following making. Specialized form of treatment are sometimes practised for the production of a more fully matured article, which may require two or three years to reach prime condition.

In some factories a diffusion process, analogous to that used in the extraction of sugar from sugar-beet, is substituted for that of direct expression of the juice by pressure already described.

Cider "Disorders" and Preservatives.—Attempts have been made to eliminate the risks of various bacterial disorders by pasteurization of the freshly expressed juice and subsequent fermentation by added pure cultures of selected kinds of yeasts and some measure of success has been achieved. Most makers, however, still adhere to the older method of natural fermentation resulting from the wild yeasts naturally present on the surface of the apples and rely on strict attention to cleanliness at all stages of production to minimize the risks of disorders. The practice of washing the fruit in running water prior to milling is being increasingly adopted to ensure the maximum of cleanliness.

The chief disorders to which cider is subject are acetification, ropiness and "sickness," each due to specific micro-organisms, and discoloration, attributable generally to contamination with iron. To check fermentation and prevent the development of bacterial disorders preservatives such as salicylic acid were formerly largely used. Under the regulations relating to the use of preservatives in foods and drinks which came into force in Great Britain in 1927 no preservative other than sulphur dioxide is permissible for cider. The maximum allowed is 14 grains of free and com bined sulphur dioxide per gallon. Preservatives as controlled in the United States are described below.

The wholesome properties of pure cider are widely recognized. In affections of a gouty or rheumatic nature positive benefit fre quently results and regular cider drinkers are rarely troubled by stone, gravel and similar disorders. The malic acid of cider is regarded as a powerful diuretic which stimulates the kidneys and prevents accumulation of uric acid within the system.

The improved position of the cider industry and the marked developments in technique have been greatly assisted by the researches and educational work on the subject conducted in France at the Station pomologique at Caen, in Germany and Switzerland at the research stations of Geisenheim-am-Rhein and Wadensweil respectively, and in England at the National Fruit and Cider Institute established at Long Ashton, near Bristol, and now associated with Bristol university.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.-National Fruit and Cider Institute, Long Ashton, Bibliography.-National Fruit and Cider Institute, Long Ashton, Reports 1903-12 (Bath, 1905-13), continued as The Annual Report of the Agricultural and Horticultural Research Station of the Uni versity of Bristol (Bath, 1914, etc.) ; G. Warcollier, "Pomologie et cidrerie" in G. Wery, Encyclopedie Agricole (192o). (B. T. P. B.) Confusion exists regarding the word "cider" applied, as it has been, to fermented and unfermented apple juices. The term is ex tensively used in the United States to refer to the unfermented juice, distinct from the practice in Great Britain and France. This article will not be concerned with "hard cider," which is the fermented product.

In 1935, according to the U.S. Census of Manufactures for that year, there were 125 cider-making establishments in the United States. The production was 1,240,692 gallons, not including the amount manufactured as a secondary product in other industries such as canning and preserving. The equivalent figure in 1929 was gallons, in 1931, 1,499,934 gallons, and in gallons. The annual consumption of cider in the United States is estimated to be slightly more than one quart per capita. Accurate statistics have not been compiled on the quantity of cider pro duced on farms, but some observers have estimated that more cider is made in the United States than any other fruit or vegeta ble juice. Large quantities of freshly-pressed apple juice are sold during the autumn months, and this farm industry has assumed considerable importance as an outlet for surplus fruit. The aver age yield of a ton of apples is 16o gallons of juice.

Although apples are grown extensively in the United States, sweet cider is virtually a seasonal product, usually consumed within a few days after the apple harvest. It is practically un obtainable after the pressing season except in small quantities sold through soda fountains and stores. This is due largely to the failure of small-scale producers of apple juice to practice pasteurizing so as to make their product available 'for use in a sweet condition at any season. Various chemical preservatives have been used to prevent fermentation, but are entirely un necessary if the juice is properly pasteurized and sealed. How ever, benzoate of soda, under certain conditions, may be employed under the food and drug acts.

Juice may be prepared in the natural cloudy state as obtained after straining through cloth, or it may be clarified by any one of the following three methods: It may be filtered directly (method 1) with or without prelimi nary flash heating and cooling in a manner similar to flash pas teurization. Such heating flocculates the suspended insoluble solids and renders filtration more easy. The suspended solids may also be precipitated by the addition of proper amounts of gela tin and tannin solutions (method 2), or by allowing an added pectin-splitting enzyme to act on the juice under proper conditions (method 3).

In carrying out any one of these three methods, diatomaceous earth is mixed with the juice to render filtration easy. Studies of the different methods of clarification have been made by research laboratories, such as State Experiment Stations in the United States, in apple-producing areas, which supply complete directions.

Filtration is best carried out in a plate and frame type of filter using an impeller-type pump. For small-scale operation gravity may be relied upon to obtain flow. A barrel or other suitable con tainer is elevated six or eight feet, and the juice mixed with filter aid is allowed to flow through a rubber hose into a long slender muslin bag placed in a trough supported in such manner that the clarified juice is drained off at one end. After filtration the juice is ready for pasteurization.

To prepare unfermented apple juice, select sound, well-matured, properly ripened fruit. If different varieties are available at the same time, blend to give balanced, well-flavoured cider. Wash and sort the fruit, trimming or discarding all specked or partially decayed apples; grind and press, subsequently repressing the pomace ; place the juice in deep containers in a cool room over night, and allowing the settling out of the pomace, siphon off the juice from the sediment.

To pasteurize on a small scale, use an ordinary wash boiler fitted with a false bottom or rack to insure circulation. Fill the cider into clean bottles, allowing I Z inches of head space, and cap tightly. Place the bottles in the water on their sides and heat until a thermometer placed in an uncapped upright bottle reaches I70° F. Hold at this temperature for about 20 minutes, remove the bottles, and allow them to cool gradually while lying on their sides. Do not place on a cold surface or the bottles will break. On a larger scale, for handling jugs or carboys, a wooden box fitted with a steam coil for heating the water may be used.

Paraffined corks should be inserted at the time of removal from the bath and great care taken in cooling to prevent breakage. "Flash" pasteurization is used in commercial practice and consists of running the cider through a coil heater, cooling rapidly, and bottling directly from the apparatus.

The heating and cooling is accomplished in only a few seconds. Either bottles or cans with proper resistant enamel may be used as containers.

The number of apple varieties cultivated is so large and the various apple-growing districts differ so widely that no complete picture can be given here.

More than 150,000,000 bu. of apples are ordinarily produced in the United States annually.

Tastes vary in cider as in wine, but good cider is ordinarily pressed from the following varieties of American apples: Baldwin, Canada Red, Delicious, Golden Delicious, Golden Russet, Graven stein, Grimes, Hubbardston, Jonathan, King, McIntosh, Newtown, Northern Spy, Rhode Island Greening, Roxbury Russet, Spitzen burg, Stayman, Wagener, Wealthy, White Pearmain, and Winesap. It is important, of course, that apples for cider-making should be neither immature or over-ripe. Among apples generally consid ered to be poor for cider-making when used without blending are Alexander, Ben Davis, Maiden Blush, Northwestern Greening, Red Astrachan, Rome Beauty, Stark, Wolf River, and Yellow Transparent.

Blending of two or more varieties is necessary to obtain high grade unfermented juice, which should have a characteristic apple flavour, plus tannin, sugar and acid, in definite ratio to one an other. Winesap is one of the few juices not improved by modifica tion of the acid or sugar content. If tannin is high, as in many crab apples, the juice is harsh and astringent; if too acid, the flavour is sour; too much sugar tastes insipid, lacking in spright liness. Furthermore, apples vary greatly in the amount of char acteristic flavour they possess. Therefore, selection and blending cannot be done too carefully in order to obtain the desired result. The prospective manufacturer of cider should consult the latest government regulations, regarding State and Federal control.