Roman Literature

ROMAN LITERATURE The story of Roman literature is a comparatively short one. Its whole lifetime is not equal to that single epoch of Greek litera ture which we call the Alexandrine age. Again, while the literature of Greece exhibits a completely independent development, Roman literature is at every point based upon Greek models. A conse quence of this is that, while Greek literature shows a logical devel opment, that of Rome develops more or less fortuitously. While, then, Greek literature is best presented in the order of evolution of the several literary types, there is no, such reason for adopting the same method in summarizing the content of Roman literature, and the most convenient method of presentation is the chrono logical.

Roman literature may be said to begin about the middle of the 3rd century B.c., and it is conveniently divided into three periods: (I) the Republican age, 250-27 B.C. ; (2) the Augustan age, 27 B.C.—A.D. 14; (3) the Imperial age, A.D. 14-524.

The Republican Age.

An account of the origins of Roman literature and of its representatives will be found under LATIN LITERATURE : here, where our object is merely to present a con spectus of the extant literature, the earliest period from which nothing but detached fragments survive, may be dismissed with a reference to the articles on Livius Andronicus (c. 284-204 B.C.), C. Naevius from Campania (d. Utica 201 B.C.), Q. Ennius 169 B.c.), M. Pacuvius (b. 220 B.C.) and L. Accius (b. 170 B.c.).

Far more important from our point of view are two poets who wrote comedies only. T. Maccius Plautus (q.v.) of Sarsina, in Umbria (c. 251-184 B.c.), is represented by 21 extant comedies— the so-called fabulae Varronianae (Aul. Gell. iii. 3. 3). They are all translated more or less closely from the Greek (cf. Trin. prol. 18 Huic Greece nomen est Thensauro fabulae: Philemo scripsit: Plautus vortit barbare, Nomen Trinummo fecit, and Asin. prol. Io).

P. Terentius Afer (q.v., c. 190-159 B.c.) of Carthage became the slave of Terentius Lucanus, whose name he took on manu mission. Six of his comedies are extant. His chief model was Menander : cf. Caesar's lines ap. Sueton. Vit. Ter. "Tu quoque to in summis, 0 dimidiate Menander / Poneris et merito, puri ser monis amator: / Lenibus atque utinam scriptis adiuncta foret vis / Comica, ut aequato virtus polleret honore / Cum Graecis neque in hac despectus parte iaceres: / Unum hoc maceror et doleo tibi desse, Terenti." ("You too, even you, half-Menander, are ranked among the highest and rightly, lover of pure Latin ; but I wish your smooth verse had comic power, that its virtue might be equally honoured with the Greek and you were not despised in this respect. Terence, I am hurt and pained to find you lack this one thing.") The merit and demerit of Terence, as here stated by Caesar, are precisely what strikes the modern student—the pur ity of his Latin and his lack of force. In the economy of his come dies, we note an innovation in that the prologue no longer has the function of introducing the play, but serves—much like the Para basis in Aristophanes—as a vehicle of criticism (cf., e.g., Adelph. prol. i5 seq. ; Heald. prol. 22).

The earliest work in Latin prose which is extant entire is the De Agri Cultura of M. Porcius Cato (q.v., 234-149 B.c.), a mere compendium of precepts on agriculture. His Res Rusticae (three books) is also the only complete work extant of M. Terentius Varro (q.v., 116-27 B.c.), the most learned Roman of his time, who in his long life produced an extraordinary variety of works. His agricultural treatise is an immense advance on that of Cato in point of style. Of Varro's work De Lingua Latina in 25 books, only 5–ID are extant.

In the hands of Varro's younger contemporary, M. Tullius Cicero (q.v., 106-43 B.c.), Latin prose style attains its highest perfection. Cicero's literary activity is amazing. Apart from his speeches (of which 58 are extant), we have several treatises on rhetoric, a great number of works on philosophy—largely written in the last two or three years of his life and particularly after the death of his daughter Tullia, and finally his correspondence : let ters (I) Ad Fantiliares (r 6 books, 62-43 B.C.), (2) Ad Quintum Fratrem (3 books, 6o-54 B.c.), (3) Ad Atticum (r 6 books, B.c.), (4) Ad M. Brutum (2 books, 43 B.c.). The letters, written as they are in a completely intimate and informal manner, consti tute an extraordinarily important commentary on the events of his time and, revised in relation to those events, form a very inter esting psychological study. C. Julius Caesar (q.v., io2-44 B.c.) wrote a treatise, De Analogia (two books), which one would have liked to see, and a tragedy Oedipus, which one would have liked to see still more. We possess, however, his Commentarii de bello Gallico, seven books, covering the years 58-52 B.c., and Com mentarii de bello civili, three books, covering the years 49-48 B.C. The Bellum Alexandrinum is probably by A. Hirtius, who also added an eighth book to the Beclum Gallicum. The authors of the B. Hispaniense and B. A f ricanum are unknown. Q. Sallustius Crispus (86-34 B.c.) of Amiternum, wrote the De Catilinae con iuratione and the Bellum lugurthinurn, both extant, and Historiae, covering the years 78-67 B.C., of which we have some fragments. Poetry in this period is represented by two names of the first rank. T. Lucretius Carus (q.v., c. 99–c. 55 B.c.) expounds the philosophy of Epicurus in his De Rerum Natura (six books), the title being a translation of IIEpi cI crews, the title of poems by Xenophanes, Parmenides, Empedocles. He had a high reputation in antiquity. Virgil, who was greatly influenced by him and refers to him (without naming him) in a famous passage of the Georgics ii. 49o, Felix qui potuit rerum cognoscere causas Atque metus omnes et inexorabile fatum Subiecit pedibus strepitumque Acjier ontis avari, is preferred to him by Quintilian (X. 1.86 seq.), on grounds which merely concern the student of oratory, and this preference has been supported by the general judgment, but not a few good judges would reverse the verdict. The strictly philo sophical passages no longer appeal, but in the more popular pas sages, such as the Prooemium (i. 1-43), the eulogy of Epicurus (iii. 1-30), on the folly of fearing death (iii. 892-91o), his pas sionate earnestness (docti furor arduus Lucreti, Stat. Si/v. ii. 7.76), coupled with genuine poetic imagination and a real gift for poetic expression, affects the modern reader perhaps more than anything in Virgil. C. Valerius Catullus (q.v., b. at Verona [Catull. lxvii. 34, Mart. xiv. 195, Ov., Am. iii. 15.7] 84–d. c. 54 B.c.), the great est of Roman lyric poets, is represented by 116 poems in a variety of metres, hendecasyllables, iambic, trimeters (including scazons), sapphics, priapean, phalaecean, asclepiadean, hexameters, elegiacs, iambic tetrameter catalectic, galliambic (lxiii). Most of his poetry shows strong marks of Greek influence, and several poems are translations from the Greek: e.g., li. (from Sappho) , lxvi. (from the lost Hair of Berenice of Callimachus). His hexameters and elegiacs—though sometimes extremely effective, as in his lines at his brother's grave (ci.)—show much less grace and ease than his hendecasyllabic and priapean poems. Apart from technique he has the two chief gifts of the lyric poet—depth of feeling ("Tenderest of Roman poets nineteen hundred years ago"—Ten nyson) and simplicity.

The Augustan Age, 27 B.C.–A.D. 14.

P. Vergilius Maro (70-19 B.c., see VIRGIL), generally regarded as the greatest of Roman poets, is represented by (I) Bucolica (Eclogue) ten poems in which Theocritus is imitated or even translated. Of these, only v., vii. and viii. are strictly pastoral, the pastoral setting in others being merely a framework, while in iv. (the so-called Mes sianic Eclogue) there is nothing of the pastoral at all; (2) Georgica, in four books (i. Agriculture, ii. Tree culture, iii. Cattle rearing, iv. Bee-keeping). The Georgics contain some of Virgil's best poetry, e.g., the praise of Italy, ii. 136-176; the eulogy of country life, ii. 458-540 ; the story of Orpheus and Eurydice, iv. (3) Aeneis, in books, the great national epic of Rome which, after ten years' work, was still unfinished (witness the "pathetic half-lines," the occasionally uncompleted hexameters) at his death, and was published by L. Varius against the expressed wishes of the poet. Virgil was a slow and careful writer (Quintil. x. 3.8, cf. D onat., Vita Verg. ix., Aul. Gell. xvii. I o. 2) . This very care and elaboration probably rather militates against the essen tially epic virtues, and it is not so much as a whole that the poem appeals, at any rate to the modern world, as in certain supreme passages in which the poet rises above his immediate theme and which are really in the nature of digressions. Q. Horatius Flaccus (65-8 B.c., see IioRAc$), born at Venusia, was the son of a freed man (cf. Hor. Sat. i. 6.6; 45, 86). After the battle of Philippi (44 B.c.) he returned to Rome where presently he became a member of the circle of Maecenas. His extant work is of two quite differ ent classes—lyrical (Odes, Epodes, Carmen Saeculare) and poems in hexameters (Satires, Epistles, De Arte Poetica). The Satires (saturae or Sermones) in two books, written between 41 and 3o B.c., deal lightly with the foibles and follies of social life, and the Epistles, 20-13 B.C., in two books, are very much in the same style as the Satires, with a greater preponderance of literary themes, which is emphasized in the epistle which bears a separate title : On the Art of Poetry. It is upon his lyrical poems that the fame of Horace as a poet really rests (Quintil. x. 1.96), and his success is due, not to any rare and high gift of poetic inspiration, but to his capacity for expressing with unsurpassed felicity, the com mon thoughts which touch most nearly the common heart of humanity. Albius Tibullus (q.v. d. 19 B.c. while still young) be longed to the circle of M. Valerius Messalla Corvinus, and was on friendly terms with Horace, who addressed to him Carm. i. 33 and Ep. i. 4, and Ovid (cf. Ov. Tr. iv. 10.51, and the beautiful elegy on Tibullus, Ov. Amor iii. 9). We possess four books of elegies under his name, but Bk. iii. is by "Lygdamus," a pseudonym for some undetermined poet ; iv. 1 (panegyric on Messalla) is by some unknown author, while iv. 7-12 are by Sulpicia, a poetess of the time of Tibullus. To call him "polished and elegant" as Quintilian does (x. 1.93) hardly does justice to his tender grace.

Sextus Aurelius Propertius (q.v., born c. 49 B.C. in Umbria, probably at Asisium [Assisi], where the name Propertius occurs in inscriptions) is represented by four books of elegies. Propertius has an irregular strength which is in marked contrast to the equable polish of Tibullus, and in the matter of form his pentameters have an elasticity and freedom which make the elegiac distich in his hands almost a new metre. Bk. iv. i i—the concluding elegy in our collection—is an excellent example of his mature style. P. Ovidius Naso (b. Sulmo 43 B.C.—died c. A.D. 18, see OvID) has left us a great variety of work. His undoubted poetic quali ties are rather obscured by the amazing polish and facility of his versification. There remain but two poets of the Augustan age who need be mentioned here, both writers of didactic epic. Grat tius, a contemporary of Ovid (Ov. Ep. ex. Pont. iv. 16.34), wrote the Cynegetica, a treatise on hunting after the Greek model, of which 541 lines are extant. Manilius, of whom nothing is known except what can be inferred from his poem—he must have written after A.D. 9, because in i. 893 he refers to the defeat in that year of Varus in the Teutoburg forest—wrote Astronomica (in five books), which is extant.

The prose writers of the Augustan age include only one name of first importance. T. Livius (59 B.C.—A.D. 17, see Livv), was born at Patavium (Padua, cf. Mart. i. 61.3) . In Rome he enjoyed the friendship of Augustus in spite of his admiration of Pompey (Tac. Ann. iv. 34). We hear of philosophical works and semi-philosoph ical dialogues written by him (Senec. Ep. 100.9), but his fame rests on his history of Rome (Historiae ab urbe condita) down to his own day (it was actually carried as far as 9 B.c.). The work was in 142 books, of which there are extant 35, viz., i.–x. (down to 293 B.c.), xxi.–xlv. (218-167 B.c.). The lost books are represented by Periochae (summaries of contents) composed c. 4th century A.D., which we possess for all except 136 and 137. An Oxyrhynchus papyrus preserves some excerpts from Bks. 3 ; 48-55. Livy, deficient as he was in technical equipment, is not exactly a scien tific historian, but he is at least an honest one. In style he is nearer Cicero (cf. Quintil. x. 1.39) than Sallust. His language (despite Asinius Pollio's reproach of Patavinitas, Quintil. i. 5.56; viii. 1.3, the reference of which is obscure), with its somewhat poetical colouring, is splendidly adapted to his task (Quintil. i. 1. I o i) . Other minor prose writers are Pompeius Trogus, L. Annaeus Sen eca of Corduba (Cordova), and Vitruvius Pollio (qq.v.).

The Imperial Age.

Under Tiberius in A.D. 30, C. Velleius Paterculus wrote for M. Vicinius (consul in that year) his Historia Romani, a sketch of Roman history in two (extant) books. A contemporary writer of first importance, L. Annaeus Seneca (A.D. 3-65), son of the elder Seneca, has left us nine tragedies imitated from the Greek, and numerous prose philosophica! writings. M. Annaeus Lucanus (A.D. 39-65), nephew of the fore going, is represented by an epic in ten books De Bello Civili, on the civil war between Pompey and Caesar. More rhetorical than poetical, Lucan has some memorable lines. Aulus Persius Flaccus (A.D. 34-62), is the author of six satires, mainly on the literary life of his time and on quasi-philosophical subjects. T. Calpurnius Siculus, in the reign of Nero, has left us seven eclogues full of adulation of Nero ; the anonymous poem De Laude Pisonis is also now attributed to him. L. Iunius Moderatus Columella, contem porary with Seneca, is the author of 12 books De Re Rustica in prose except the tenth book which is in hexameters. Next we have a group of four poets: P. Papinius Statius (b. between A.D. 40 and 45, died c. 98) author of two epics—Thebais and Achilleis —and a collection of poems in various metres with the general title Silvae. Valerius Flaccus in the time of Vespasian, to whom his poem is dedicated, wrote the Argonautica in eight books. The matter is mainly taken from the Argonautica of Apollonius Rho dius and the style is a rhetorical imitation of Virgil. T. Catius Silius Italicus (d. I01) in the reigns of Nero, Vitellius and Vespa sian, wrote an epic Punica (17 books). His poem, the matter of which is mainly taken from Livy, is highly rhetorical and has little poetical merit. A much more brilliant poet is M. Valerius Martialis (born c. A.D. 40, d. shortly after oo), represented by 14 books of epigrams, some being of remarkable beauty.

C. Plinius Secundus (c. A.D. 23-79) in 77 presented Titus with his Naturalis Historia (in 36 books). Quite devoid of style and of no independent authority, the work is of considerable impor tance as preserving information from authorities now lost. M. Fabius Quintilianus (c. A.D. is the author of the Institutio Oratoria in I2 books, book x. containing a sort of comparative sketch of Greek and Roman literary history, which includes very happy critiques of the leading Greek and Roman writers. The greatest prose writer of the Imperial age is C. Cornelius Tacitus (c. A.D. 54-c. I 18) ; we have his Dialogus de Oratoribus, Agricola (A.D. 98) Germania (about the same date), Histories (A.D. 69-96), Annals (probably written after A.D. I I 6) . C. Plinius Caecilius Secundus (6i–c. 114), nephew of the elder Pliny, is represented by nine books of letters, and in addition by the historically very important Panegyricus on Trajan and the correspondence with Trajan (including the extraordinarily important letters 96 and 97, dealing with the trial of the early Christians). C. Suetonius Tranquillus, who, under Hadrian, held the office of imperial secretary (ab epistulis), wrote the lives of the emperors (De Vita Caesarum) from Caesar to Domitian. We have also his treatise De Grammaticis et de Rhetoribus, originally part of a larger work, De Viris Illustribus, of which the extant Vitae of Terence, Horace, Lucan, Passienus Crispus, and the elder Pliny are frag ments. D. Iunius Iuvenalis (b. Aquinum, probably A.D. 67) has left 15 satires written under Trajan and Hadrian. Juvenal is a master of vivid phrase : e.g., his account of street dangers in Sat. iii. 264 sqq. So his single lines are memorable : "facit indignatio versum" (i. 79), "mens sang in corpore sano" (x. 356), "maxima debetur puero reverentia" (xiv. 47) . We must dismiss the remaining authors summarily—with again a reference to their separate bio graphical articles and the article LATIN LITERATURE : M. Corne lius Fronto (2nd century A.D.) ; Aulus Gellius (born c. 13o) ; L. Apuleius (b. at Madaura, in Africa, A.D. I 14) ; the Pervigilium Veneris, by an author unknown ; Ammianus Marcellinus (born c. ; Decimus Magnus Ausonius (born at Bordeaux c. 300) ; Claudius Claudianus (born at Alexandria, died 404) ; Aurelius Prudentius Clemens, the first great Christian poet; C. Lollius Apollinaris Sidonius (c. 430--480), and lastly, Boethius (born c. 480, executed 524).