Commercial Treaties

COMMERCIAL TREATIES. A commercial treaty is a contract between states relative to trade. It is a bilateral act whereby definite arrangements are entered into by each contract ing party towards the other—not mere concessions. As regards technical distinctions, an "agreement," an "exchange of notes," or a "convention" properly applies to one specific subject ; where as a "treaty" usually comprises several matters, whether com mercial or political.

In ancient times foreign intercourse, trade and navigation were in many instances regulated by international arrangements. The text is extant of treaties of commerce and navigation concluded between Carthage and Rome in 509 and 348 B.C. Aristotle men tions that nations were connected by commercial treaties ; and other classical writers advert to these engagements. Under the Roman empire the matters thus dealt with became regulated by law, or by usages sometimes styled laws. When the territories of the empire were contracted, and the imperial authority was weakened, some kind of international agreements again became necessary. At Constantinople in the loth century treaties cited by Gibbon protected "the person, effects and privileges of the Russian merchant" ; and, in western Europe, intercourse, trade and navigation were carried on, at first tacitly by usage derived from Roman times, or under verbal permission given to merchants by the ruler to whose court they resorted. Afterwards, security in these transactions was afforded by means of formal documents, such as royal letters, charters, laws and other instruments possess ing the force of government measures. Instances affecting English commercial relations are the letter of Charlemagne in 796, the Brabant Charter of 1305, and the Russian ukase of 1569. Medi aeval treaties of truce or peace often contained a clause permit ting in general terms the renewal of personal and commercial communication as it subsisted before the war. This custom is still followed. But these mediaeval arrangements were precarious: they were often of temporary duration, and were usually only effective during the lifetime of the contracting sovereigns.

The Modern System Begins.

Passing over trade agreements affecting the Eastern empire, the modern commercial treaty sys tem came into existence in the 12th century. Genoa, Pisa and Venice were then well-organized communities, and were in keen rivalry. Whenever their position in a foreign country was strong, a trading centre was established, and few or no specific engage ments were made on their part. But in serious competition or difficulty another course was adopted : a formal agreement was concluded for the better security of their commerce and naviga tion. The arrangements of 114o between Venice and Sicily; the Genoese conventions of 1149 with Valencia, of 1161 with Moroc co, and of ir8i with the Balearic Islands, the Pisan conventions of 1173 with Sultan Saladin, and of 1184 with the Balearic Islands, were the earliest Western commercial treaties. Such definite arrangements, although still of a personal character, were soon perceived to be preferable to general provisions in a treaty of truce or peace. They afforded also greater security than priv ileges enjoyed under usage; or under grants of various kinds, whether local or royal. The policy thus inaugurated was adopted gradually throughout Europe. The first treaties relative to the trade of the Netherlands were between Brabant and Holland in 1203, Holland and Utrecht in 1204, and Brabant and Cologne in 1251. Early northern commercial treaties are those between Riga and Smolensk in 1229, and between Lubeck and Sweden in 1269. The first commercial relations between the Hanse Towns and foreign countries were arrangements made by guilds of merchants, not by public authorities as a governing body. For a long period the treaty system did not entirely supersede conditions of inter course between nations dependent on permission.

The earliest English commercial treaty is that with Norway in 1217. It provides ut mercatores et Ilomines qui suet de potestate vestra libere et sine impedimento terram nostram adire possint, et homines et mercatores nostri similiter vestram (that merchants and men who are of your power may freely and without impedi ment visit our territory, and our men and merchants similarly visit yours) . These stipulations are in due treaty form. The next early English treaties are:—with Flanders, 1274 and Portugal, 1308, 1352 and 1386; Baltic Cities, 1319 and 1388; Biscay and Castile, 1351; Burgundy, 1417 and 1496; France, 1471, 1497 and 1510 ; Florence, 1490. The commercial treaty policy in England was carried out systematically under Henry IV. and Henry VII. It was continued under James I. to extend to Scotland English trading privileges. The results attained in the 17th century were—regularity in treaty arrangements; perma nent instead of personal nature ; the conversion of permissive into perfect rights; questions as to contraband and neutral trade stated in definite terms. Treaties were at first limited to exclusive and distinct engagements between the contracting states; each treaty differing more or less in its terms from other similar compacts. Afterwards by extending to a third nation privileges granted to particular countries, the most favoured nation article began to be framed, as a unilateral engagement by a particular state. The Turkish capitulations afford the earliest instances; and the treaty of 1641 between the Netherlands and Portugal contains the first European formula. Cromwell continued the commercial treaty policy partly in order to obtain a formal recognition of the com monwealth from foreign powers. His treaty of 1654 with Sweden contains the first reciprocal "most favoured nation clause":— Article IV. provides that the people, subjects and inhabitants of either confederate "shall have and possess in the countries, lands, dominions and kingdoms of the other as full and ample privileges, and as many exemptions, immunities and liberties, as any foreigner doth or shall possess in the dominions and kingdoms of the said confederate." The government of the Restoration replaced and enlarged the Protectorate arrangements by fresh agreements. The general policy of the commonwealth was maintained, with further provisions on behalf of colonial trade. In the new treaty of 1661 with Sweden the privileges secured were those which "any for eigner whatsoever doth or shall enjoy in the said dominions and kingdoms on both sides." In contemporary treaties France obtained from Spain that French subjects should enjoy the same liberties as had been granted to the English ; and England obtained from Denmark (1661) that the English should not pay more or greater customs than the people of the United Provinces and other foreigners, the Swedes only excepted. The colonial and navigation policy of the 17th century, and the proceedings of Louis XIV., provoked animosities and retaliatory tariffs. During the War of the Spanish Succession the Methuen Treaty of 1703 was concluded. Portugal removed prohibitions against the importation of British woollens; Great Britain engaged that Portuguese wines should pay one-third less duty than the rate levied on French wines.

At the peace of Utrecht in 1713 political and commercial treaties were concluded. England agreed to remove prohibitions on the importation of French goods, and to grant most favoured nation treatment in relation to goods and merchandise of the like nature from any other country in Europe ; the French general tariff of Sept. 18, 1664, was again to be put in force for English trade. The English provision was at variance with the Methuen Treaty. A violent controversy arose as to the relative importance in 1713 of Anglo-Portuguese or Anglo-French trade. In the end the House of Commons, by a majority of 9, rejected the bill to give effect to the commercial treaty of 1713; and trade with France remained on an unsatisfactory footing until 1786. The other commercial treaties of Utrecht were very complete in their provisions, equal to those of the present time ; and contained most favoured nation articles—England secured in 1715 reduction of duties on woollens imported into the Austrian Netherlands; and trading privileges in Spanish America. Moderate import duties for woollens were obtained in Russia by the commercial treaty of 1766. In the meanwhile the Bourbon family compact of Aug. 15, 1761, assured national treatment for the subjects of France, Spain and the Two Sicilies, and for their trade in the European terri tories of the other two states; and most favoured nation treat ment as regards any special terms granted to any foreign country. The first commercial treaties concluded by the United States with European countries contained most favoured nation clauses : this policy has been continued by the United States, but the wording of the clause has often varied.

In 1786 France began to. effect tariff reform by means of com mercial treaties. The first was with Great Britain, and it terminated the long continued tariff warfare. But the wars of the French Revolution swept away these reforms, and brought about a renewal of hostile tariffs. Prohibition and differential duties were renewed, and prevailed on the Continent until the sixth decade of the 19th century. In 186o a government existed in France sufficiently strong and liberal to revert to the policy of 1786. The bases of the Anglo-French treaty of 186o, beyond its most favoured nation provisions, were in France a general transition from prohibition or high customs duties to a moderate tariff ; in the United Kingdom abandonment of all protective im posts, and reduction of duties maintained for fiscal purposes to the lowest rates compatible with these exigencies. Other European countries were obliged to obtain for their trade the benefit of the conventional tariff thus established in France, as an alternative to the high rates inscribed in the general tariff. A series of commercial treaties was accordingly concluded by different European states between 1861 and 1866, which effected further reductions of customs duties in the several countries that came within this treaty system. In 1871 the Republican government sought to terminate the treaties of the empire. The British negotiators nevertheless obtained the relinquish ment of the attempt to levy protective duties under the guise of compensation for imposts on raw materials; the duration of the treaty of 186o was prolonged; and stipulations better worded than those before in force were agreed to for shipping and most favoured nation treatment. In 1882, however, France terminated her existing European tariff treaties. Belgium and some other countries concluded fresh treaties, less liberal than those of the system of 186o, yet much better than anterior ar rangements. Great Britain did not formally accept these higher duties; the treaty of Feb. 28, 1882, with France, which secured most favoured nation treatment in other matters, provided that customs duties should be "henceforth regulated by the internal legislation of each of the two states." In 1892 France also fell out of international tariff arrangements; and adopted the system of double columns of customs duties—one, of lower rates, to be applied to the goods of all nations receiving most favoured treat ment ; and the other, of higher rates, for countries not on this footing. Germany then took up the treaty tariff policy; and between 1891 and 1894 concluded several commercial treaties.

During the succeeding 20 years the world's tariffs and con comitant treaties were remodelled again and again, and at the outbreak of the World War, nearly all the nations were linked to gether by a close network of commercial treaties, by means of which it was attempted to reconcile three very different objects, (I) the gathering of customs revenue, (2) the protection of home industries, and (3) the furtherance of export trade. Each such treaty represented a compromise in the pursuance of these ob jects, but each, nevertheless, formed a link of real commercial importance.

Scope.—The scope of commercial treaties is well expressed by Calvo in his work on international law. They provide for the importation, exportation, transit, trans-shipment and bonding of merchandise ; customs tariffs ; navigation charges ; quarantine ; the admission of vessels to roadsteads, ports and docks; coasting trade ; the admission of consuls and their rights ; fisheries ; they determine the local position of the subjects of each state in the other country in regard to residence, property, payment of taxes or exemptions, and military service; nationality ; and a most favoured nation clause. They usually contain a termination, and sometimes a colonial article. Some of the matters enumerated by Calvo—consular privileges, fisheries and nationality—are now frequently dealt with by separate conventions. Contraband and neutral trade are not included as frequently as they were in the i8th century.

The preceding statement shows that commercial treaties afford to foreigners, personally, legal rights and relief from technical disabilities; they afford security to trade and navigation, and regulate other matters comprised in their provisions. In Europe in 1914 the general principles established by a series of treaties (i 86o-66) held good, viz., the substitution of uniform rates of customs duties for prohibitions or differential rates. The dis advantages urged are that these treaties involve government inter ference and bargaining, whereas each state should act indepen dently as its interests require ; that they are opposed to free trade, and restrict the fiscal freedom of the legislature. It may be observed that these objections imply some confusion of ideas. All contracts may be designated bargains, and some of the details of commercial treaties in Calvo's enumeration enter directly into the functions of government; moreover, countries cannot remain isolated. If two countries agree by simultaneous action to adopt fixed rates of duty, this agreement is favourable to commerce, and it is not apparent how it is contrary even to free trade prin ciples. Moreover, security in business transactions, a very im portant consideration, is provided.