CUBA (the aboriginal name), a republic and a member of the League of Nations, the largest and most populous of the West Indian islands, included between the meridians of i4° 7' and 84° 57' W. long. and (roughly) the parallels of 19° 48' and 23° 13' N. lat. It divides the entrance to the Gulf of Mexico into two passages of nearly equal width—the Strait of Florida, about 110 m. wide between Capes Hicacos in Cuba and Arenas in Florida (Key West being a little over ioo m. from Havana) ; and the Yucatan Channel, about 13o m. wide between Capes San Antonio and Catoche. On the north-east, east and south-east, narrower channels separate it from the Bahamas, Haiti (5o m.) and Jamaica (85 m.).
Physical Features.—The island of Cuba is long and narrow, somewhat in the form of an irregular crescent, convex toward the north. Its length from Cape Maisi to Cape San Antonio along a medial line is about 730 m.; its breadth, which averages about 5o m., ranges from a maximum of 16o m. to a minimum of about 22 miles. The total area is estimated at 41,634 sq.m. without the surrounding keys and the Isle of Pines (area about 1,180 sq.m.). The geography of the island is still imperfectly known, and most figures are approximate only. The coast line, 'including larger bays, but excluding reefs, islets, keys and all minute sinuosities, is about 2,500 m. in length. The north littoral, characterized by bluffs, becomes higher and higher toward the east, rising to 600 ft. at Cape Maisi. The bluffs are marked by distinct terraces. The southern coast near Cape Maisi is low and sandy. From Guantanamo to Santiago it rises in high escarp ments, and west of Santiago, where the Sierra Maestra runs close to the sea, there is a very high abrupt shore. To the west of Manzanillo it sinks again, and throughout most of the remaining distance to Cape San Antonio is low, with a sandy or marshy littoral; at places sand hills fringe the shore ; near Trinidad there are hills of considerable height ; and the coast becomes high and rugged west of Point Fisga, in the province of Pinar del Rio. On both the north and south sides of the island there are long chains of islets and reefs and coral keys (of which it is estimated there are which limit access to probably half of the coast, and on the north, render navigation difficult and dangerous. On the south, they are covered with mangroves. A large part of the southern littoral is subject to overflow, and much more of it is permanently marshy. The Zapata Swamp near Cienfuegos is 600 sq.m. in area ; other large swamps are the Majaguillar, east of Cardenas, and the Cienaga del Buey, south of the Cauto river. A remarkable feature of the Cuban coast is the number of excellent anchorages,. roadsteads and harbours. On the north shore, beginning at the west, Bahia Honda, Havana, Matanzas, Cardenas, Nuevitas and Nipe ; and on the south shore running westward Guantanamo, Santiago and Cienfuegos, are harbours of the first class, several of them among the best of the world. Mariel, Cabanas, Banes, Sagua la Grande and Baracoa on the north, and Manzanillo, Santa Cruz, Batabano and Trinidad on the south are also excellent ports or anchorages. The peculiar pouch-shape of almost all the harbours named (Matanzas being a marked exception) greatly increases their security and defen sibility. The number of small bays that can be utilized for coast trade traffic is extraordinary.
In popular language the different portions of the island are distinguished as the Vuelta Abajo ("lower turn"), west of Havana; the Vuelta Arriba ("upper turn"), east of Havana to Cienfuegos—Vuelta Abajo and Vuelta Arriba are also used col loquially at any point in the island to mean "east" and "west"— Las Cinco Villas—i.e., Villa Clara, Trinidad, Remedios, Cien fuegos and Sancti Spiritus—between Cienfuegos and Sancti Spiritus ; and Tierra Adentro, referring to the region between Cienfuegos and Bayamo. These names are extremely common. The province and city of Puerto Principe are officially known as Camaguey, their original Indian name, which has practically supplanted the Spanish name in local usage.
Five topographic divisions of the island are fairly marked. Santiago (formerly Oriente) province is high and mountainous, Camaguey is characterized by rolling, open plains, slightly broken, especially in the west, by low mountains. The east part of Santa Clara province is decidedly rough and broken. The west part, with the provinces of Matanzas and Havana, is flat and rolling, with occasional hills a few hundred feet high. Finally, Pinar del Rio is dominated by a prominent mountain range and by outlying piedmont hills and mesas. There are mountains in Cuba from one end of the island to the other, but they are not derived from any central mass and are not continuous. As just indicated there are three distinctively mountainous districts, various minor groups lying outside these: The three main systems are known in Cuba as the occidental, central and oriental. The first, the Organ mountains, in Pinar del Rio, rises in a sandy, marshy region near Cape San Antonio. The crest runs near the north shore, leaving various flanking spurs and foothills, and a coastal plain which at its greatest breadth on the south is some 20 m. wide. The plain on the north is narrower and higher. The southern slope is smooth, and abounds in creeks and rivers. The portion of the southern plain between the bays of Cortes and Majana is the most famous portion of the Vuelta Abajo tobacco region. The mountain range is capriciously broken at points, especially near Bejucal. The highest part is the Pan de Guajaibon, near Bahia Honda, at the west end of the chain; its altitude has been variously estimated from 1,95o to 2,500 feet. The central system has two wings, one approaching the north coast, the other cover ing the island between Sancti Spiritus and Santa Clara. It com prehends a number of independent groups. The highest point, the Pico Potrerillo, is about 2,90o ft. in altitude. The summits are generally well rounded, while the lower slopes are often steep. Frequent broad intervals of low upland or low level plain extend from sea to sea between and around the mountains. Near the coast runs a continuous belt of plantations, while grazing, tobacco and general farm lands cover the lower slopes of the hills, and virgin forests much of the uplands and mountains.
The oriental mountain region includes the province of Oriente and a portion of Camaguey. In extent, in altitude, in mass, in complexity and in geological interest, it is much the most im portant of the three systems. Almost all the mountains are very bold. They are imperfectly known. There are two main ranges, the Sierra Maestra, and a line of various groups along the north shore. The former runs from Cape Santa Cruz eastward along the coast some 125 m. to beyond the river Baconao. The Sierra de Cobre, a part of the system in the vicinity of Santiago, has a general elevation of about 3,00o ft. Monte Turquino, 7,700-8,320 ft. in altitude, is the highest peak of the island. Gran Piedra rises more than 5,20o ft., the Ojo del Toro more than 3,300, the Anvil de Baracoa is somewhat lower, and Pan de Matanzas is about 1,267 feet. The western portions of the range rise abruptly from the ocean, forming a bold and beautiful coast. A multitude of ravines and gullies, filled with torrential streams or dry, accord ing to the season of the year, and characterized by many beautiful cascades, seam the narrow coastal plain and the flanks of the mountains. The spurs of the central range are a highly intricate complex, covered with dense forests of superb woods. Many points are inaccessible, and the scenery is wild in the extreme. The mountains beyond Guantanamo are known locally by a variety of names, though topographically a continuation of the Sierra Maestra. The same is true of the chains that coalesce with those near Cape Maisi and diverge northwesterly along the north coast of the island. The general character of this northern mar ginal system is like that of the southern, save that the range is much less continuous. The range near Baracoa is extremely wild and broken. The region between the lines of the two coastal systems is a much dissected plateau, imperfectly explored. The Cauto river, the only one flowing east or west and the largest of Cuba, flows through it westward to the southern coast near Manzanillo. The scenery in the oriental portion of the island is very beautiful, with wild mountains and tropical forests. In the central part there are extensive prairies. In the west there are swelling hills and gentle valleys, with the royal palm the dominat ing tree.
A very peculiar feature is the abundance of caverns in the limestone beneath the surface. The caves of Cotilla near Havana, of Bellamar near Matanzas, of Monte Libano near Guantanamo, and those of San Juan de los Remedios, are the best known. Many streams have part of their course through underground tunnels. Thus the Rio San Antonio suddenly dis appears near San Antonio de los Banos; the cascades of the Jatibonico del Norte disappear and reappear in a surprising manner; the Moa cascade (near Guantanamo) drops 30o ft. into a cavern and its waters later reissue from the earth ; the Jojo river disappears in a great "sink" and later issues with violent current at the edge of the sea. The springs of fresh water that bubble up among the keys of the south coast are also supposedly the outlets of underground streams.
The number of rivers is very great, but almost without excep tion their courses are normal to the coast, and they are so short as to be of but slight importance. The Cauto river in Oriente province is exceptional; it is 25o m. long, and navigable by small vessels for about 75 miles. Inside the bar at its mouth (formed by a storm in 1616) ships of 200 tons can still ascend to Cauto. In Camaguey province the Jatibonico del Sur ; in Oriente the Salado, a branch of the Cauto ; in Santa Clara the Sagua la Grande (which is navigable for some 20 m. and has an important traffic), and the Damuji ; in Matanzas, the Canimar ; and in Pinar del Rio the Cuyaguateje, are important streams. The water-parting in the four central provinces is very indefinite. There are a few river valleys that are noteworthy—those of the Yumuri, the Trinidad and the GUines. At Guantanamo and Trinidad are other valleys, and between Mariel and Havana is the fine valley of Ariguanabo. Of lakes, there are a few on the coast, and a very few in the mountains. The finest is Lake Ariguanabo, near Havana, 6 sq.m. in area. Of the almost innumerable river cas cades, those of the Sierra Maestra mountains, and in particular the Moa cascade, have already been mentioned. The Guama cascade in Oriente province and the Hanabanilla Fall near Cien fuegos (each more than 30o f t. high), the Rosario Fall in Pinar del Rio, and the Almendares cascade near Havana, may also be mentioned.
Minerals are fairly abundant in number, but few are present in sufficient quantity to be industrially important. Oriente province is distinctively the mineral province of the island. Large copper deposits of peculiar richness occur in the Sierra de Cobre, and both iron and manganese are abundant. Besides the deposits in Oriente province, iron is known to exist in considerable amount in Camaguey and Santa Clara, and copper in Camaguey and Pinar del Rio provinces. The copper deposits are mainly in serpentine. Manganese occurs especially along the coast between Santiago and Manzanillo. Chromium and other rare minerals exist, but not in commercially available quantities. Bituminous products of every grade, from clear translucent oils to lignite-like sub stances, occur in all parts of the island. Much of the bituminous deposits is on the dividing line between asphalt and coal. There is but little stone which is hard enough to be good for building material, the greatest part being a soft coralline limestone. There are extensive and valuable deposits of beautiful marbles in the Isle of Pines, and lesser ones near Santiago. The Organ moun tains contain a hard blue limestone; and sandstones occur on the north coast of Pinar del Rio province. Clays of all qualities and colours abound. Mineral waters, though not yet important in trade, are extremely abundant, and a score of places in Cuba and the Isle of Pines are already known as health resorts.
The soil of the island is mainly alluvial on the lowlands and disintegrated limestone on the uplands. In the original formation of the island volcanic disturbances and coral growth played some part. Noteworthy earthquakes are rare. They have been most common in Oriente province. Those of 1776, 1842 and 1852 were particularly destructive, and of earlier ones those of 1551 and 1624 at Bayamo and of 1578 and 1678 at Santiago. Every year there are light seismic disturbances, Santiago being the point of most frequent visitation.
Of the palm there are more than 3o species. The royal palm is the most characteristic tree of Cuba. It attains a height of from 50 to 75 ft., and sometimes of more than ioo feet. Alone, or in groups, or in long aisles, towering above the plantations or its fellow trees of the forest, its beautiful crest dominates every landscape. Every portion, from its roots to its leaves, serves some useful purpose. The corojo palm (Cocos crispa) rivals the royal palm in beauty and utility; oil, sugar, drink and wood are derived from it. The Coco palm (Cocos nuci f era) is also put to varied uses. The mango is planted with the royal palm along the avenues of the planta tions. The beautiful ceiba (Bombax ceiba, Ceiba pentandra) or silk-cotton tree is the giant of the Cuban forests; it often grows to a height of ioo to i so ft. with enormous girth. The royal ponon (Erythrina velutina) is remarkable for the magnificent purple flowers that cover it. The tamarind and banyan are also note worthy. Utilitarian trees and plants are legion.
There are at least 4o choice cabinet and building woods. Of these, ebonies, mahogany, culld (or cuyq, Bumelia retusa), cocullo (cocuyo, Bumelia nigra), ocuje (Callophyllum viticifolia, Orni trophis occidentalis, O. cominia), jigiie (jique, Lysilonva sabicu), mahagua (Hibiscus tiliaceus), granadillo (Bryn ebenus), icaquillo (Licania incania) and agua-baria (Cordia gerascanthes) are per haps the most beautiful. Other woods, beautiful and precious, include guayacan (Guaiacum sanctum), baria varia (Cordia geras canthoides)—the fragrant, hard-wood Spanish elm—the quiebra hacha (Co pai f era hymeno f olia) , which three are of wonderful lasting qualities; the jiqui (Malpighia obovata), acana (Achras disecta, Bassia albescens), caigardn (or caguadran, Hymenaea floribunda), and the dagame (Calicophyllum candidissimum), which four, like the culld, are all wonderfully resistant to humid ity; the caimatillo (Chryso phyllum olivi f orme) , the yaya (or yayajabico, yayabito : Erythalis fructicosa, Bocagea virgata, Guateria virgata, Asimina Blaini), a magnificent construction wood; the maboa (Cameraria lati f olia) and the jocuma (j ocum : Sideroxylon mastichodendron, Bumelia satici f olia), all of indi vidual beauties and qualities.
Many species are rich in gums and resins; others are oleagi nous; and many are medicinal. There are also various dye-woods; rose-wood, log-wood (or campeachy wood), indigo, manajzi (Gar cinia Morella), Brazil-wood and saffron. Textile plants are extremely common. The majagua tree grows as high as 4o ft.; from its bark is made cordage of the finest quality. Strong, fine, glossy fibres are yielded by the exotic ramie (Boehmeria nivea) ; by the maya or rat-pineapple (Bromelia Pinguin), and by the daquilla (or daiguiya—Lagetta lintearia, L. valenzuelana), which like the maya yields a brilliant flexible product like silk; stronger cordage by the corojo palms, and various henequen plants, native and exotic (especially Agave americana, A. cubensis) ; and various plantains, the exotic Sansevieria guinensis, okra, jute, Laportea, various lianas, and a great variety of reeds, supply varied textile materials. The yucca is a source of starch. For building and mis cellaneous purposes, in addition to the rare woods above named, there are cedars (used in great quantities for cigar boxes) ; the pine, found only in the west, where it gives its name to the Isle of Pines and the province of Pinar del Rio; and various palms and oaks. Among economic plants are the coffee, cacao, citron, cinna mon, coco-nut and rubber tree. Wheat, Indian corn and many vegetables, especially tuberous, are important. Plantain in several varieties is a cheap and healthful substitute for bread, as is also the bitter cassava, after the poison is extracted. The sweet cassava yields tapioca. Bread-trees are fairly common. White and sweet potatoes, yams, sweet and bitter yuccas, sago and okra are raised.
The pineapple is the fruit most favoured by Cubans. The tamarind is everywhere. Bananas are grown particularly in the region about Nipe, Gibara and Baracoa, whence they are exported in large quantities. Mangoes, though exotic, are extremely com mon, and in the east grow wild in the forests. Oranges are little cultivated. Lemons yield continuously through the year, but like oranges, not much has yet been done with them commercially. Pomegranates are universally used, but figs and grapes degenerate. The coco-nut palm is most abundant in the vicinity of Baracoa.
Among the common fruits are custard apples (Anona cherimolia), sweet-sops (A. squamosa), sour-sops (A. muricata), mamons (A. reticulata), star-apples (Chrysophyllum cainito, C. pomiferum), rose-apples (Eugenia jambos), pawpaws, sapodillas (Sapota archras), canister (Achras Sapota), jaguas (Genipa americana), alligator pears (Persea gratissima), yellow mammees (Mammea americana), "red mammees" (Lucuma mammosa) and limes.
Eight or ten years rarely pass without tornadoes or hurricanes of local severity at least. Notably destructive ones occurred in 1768, 1774, 1842, 1844, 1846, 1865, 1870, 1876, 1885, 1894, 1896, 1906, 1910, 1912, 1915, 1917, 1926. Those of 1842 and caused extreme distress. In 1846, 30o vessels and 2,000 houses, were destroyed at Havana; in 1896 the banana groves of the north east coast were ruined; and in 1906 Havana suffered damage. Such storms most frequently occur in September, October and November.
Health.—Convincing evidence is offered by the qualities of the Spanish race in Cuba that white men of temperate lands can be perfectly acclimatized in this tropical island. As for diseases, some common to Cuba and Europe are more frequent or severe in the island, others rarer or milder. There are the usual malarial, bilious and intermittent fevers, and liver, stomach and intestinal complaints prevalent in tropical countries and chiefly due to unhygienic living. Yellow fever (which first appeared in Cuba in 1647) was long the only epidemic disease, Havana being an endemic focus. The danger of an outbreak was never absent, until the work of the U.S. army in 1901-02 conclusively proved that this disease could be eradicated entirely by removing the possibility of inoculation by the Stegomyia mosquito. Since then yellow fever has ceased to be a scourge in Cuba. Small-pox was the cause of a greater mortality than yellow fever even before the means of combating the latter had been ascertained. The remark able sanitary work begun during the American occupation and continued by the republic of Cuba, has shown that the ravages of this and other diseases can be greatly diminished. Leprosy is rather common, but seemingly only slightly contagious. Consump tion is very prevalent. Malaria has been greatly reduced by the campaign against the anopheles mosquito, the carrier of the malady.
Sugar has been the dominant crop since the end of the 18th century. Before the Civil War of 1895-98 the capital invested in it was greater by half than that in tobacco and coffee, live stock and other farms. Fruit and live stock interests have since increased. Dependence on one crop has been an artificial economic condition often of grave momentary danger to prosperity ; but generally speaking, the progress of the industry has been steady. The com petition of the sugar-beet has been felt severely. During and after the war of 1868-78, many families emigrated and were ruined; the ownership of plantations largely passed from Cubans to Span iards. About 1885 began an immense development of centraliza tion (the tendency having been evident many years before this) . Plantations have increased greatly in size (and also diminished in number), greater capital is involved, bagasse furnaces have been introduced, double grinding mills have increased by more than a half the yield of juice from a given weight of cane, and extraction instead of being carried on on all plantations has been (since 1880) concentrated in comparatively few "centrals" in Feb. 1927). Three-fourths of all are in the Santa Clara, Oriente and Camaguey provinces, 127 of the centrals which produced in 1927 nearly f our-fifths of the crop. A comparatively low cost of intelligent free labour, the centralized organization and modern methods that prevail on the plantations, the remarkable fertility of the soil (which yields 5 or 6 crops with good management, without replanting), and the proximity of the United States, in whose markets Cuba disposes of almost all her crop, have long enabled her to distance her smaller West Indian rivals and to compete with the bounty-fed beet. The methods of cultivation, however, are still distinctly extensive, and the returns are much less than they would be with more scientific methods. In the season of 1926-27, which may be taken as typical, 177 estates produced 49,562,624 tons of cane and yielded—in addition to alcohol, brandy and molasses-4,508,600 tons of sugar. Twenty of the large centrals, each yielding more than 64,000 tons, pro duced nearly one-third of the total crop. Production from 185o to 1868 averaged 469,934 tons yearly, rising from 223,145 to 749,000; from 1869 to 1886 (continuing high during the period of the Ten Years' War) , 632,003 tons; from 1887 to 1907—omitting the five years 1896-1900 when the industry was prostrated by war-909,827 tons (and including the war period, 758,066); and in the six harvests of 1901-06—I,016,899 tons. Prior to 1902 the million mark was reached only twice—in 1894 and 1895. Fol lowing the resuscitation of the industry after the Spanish-Ameri can War, the island's crop rose steadily from one-sixth to a full quarter of the total cane sugar output of the world, its share in the world's product of sugar of all kinds ranging from a tenth to an eighth. Of this enormous output, the United States takes about four-fifths, and the United Kingdom about one-tenth. In recent years Cuba has supplied from 5o to 56% of the sugar for the United States.
Three-fourths of the tobacco of Cuba comes from Pinar del Rio province, the rest mainly from the provinces of Havana and Santa Clara—the description de partido being applied to the leaf not produced in Havana and Pinar del Rio provinces, and some times to all produced outside the vuelta abajo. This district, including the finest land, is on the southern slope of the Organ mountains between the Honda river and Mantua; bananas are cultivated with the tobacco. "Vegas" (tobacco fields) of espe cially good repute are also found near Trinidad, Remedios, Yara, Mayari and Vicana. The tobacco industry has been uniformly prosperous, except when crippled by war in 1868-78 and 1895-98. The crop of 1924 was 84,000,000 lb., valued at more than $72, 000,000. Even in the time of slavery tobacco was generally a white-man's crop; for it requires intelligent labour and intensive care. In recent years the growth of the leaf under cloth tents has greatly increased, as it has been abundantly proved that the product thus secured is much more valuable—lighter in colour and weight, finer in texture, with an increased proportion of wrapper leaves, and more uniform qualities, and with lesser amounts of cellulose, nicotine, gums and resins. In these respects the Cuban tobacco crops, produced in the sun, hardly rival the Sumatra product ; but produced under cheese-cloth they do. Some of the deep sinks that characterize the island produce an excellent tobacco crop, "and if more certain proof of excellence is asked for," writes Thomas Barbour, "then why else would the Hoyo Pelenque have been cultivated for over 10o years, when it is sur rounded by cliffs which must be ascended or descended by more than 7o separate ladders, and when the oxen which plough the hoyo floor have to be carried in as calves and kept there their whole lives long?" (See T. Barbour, The Birds of Cuba, 1923). (See ToBAcco.) Coffee-raising was once a flourishing and very promising indus try. It first attained prominence with the settlement in eastern Cuba, late in the 18th century, of French refugee immigrants from Santo Domingo. Some ca f etales were established by the new comers near Havana, but the industry has always been almost exclusively one of Oriente province, with Santa Clara as a much smaller producer. Before the war of 1868-78 the production amounted to about 25,000,000 lb. yearly. The war of 1895-98 still further diminished the vitality of the industry, but the crop soon increased and in 1926-27 was 35,640,000 lb. The berries are of fine quality, and despite the competition of Brazil there is no agricultural reason why the home market at least should not be supplied from Cuban estates.
Of other agricultural crops those of fruits are of greatest im portance—bananas, pineapples and oranges. The coconut indus try has long been largely confined to the region about Baracoa, owing to the ruin of the trees elsewhere by a disease not yet thoroughly understood, which, appearing finally near Baracoa, threatened by 1908 to destroy the industry there as well. Yams and sweet-potatoes, yuccas, malangas, cacao, rice—which is one of the most important foods of the people, but which is not yet widely cultivated on a profitable basis—and Indian corn, which grows everywhere and yields two crops yearly, may be mentioned also. In very recent years gardening has become an industry of importance, particularly in the province of Pinar del Rio. Save on the coffee, tobacco and sugar plantations, where competition in large markets has suggested certain modern methods, agricul ture is still very primitive. The wooden ploughstick, for instance —taking the country as a whole—has never been displaced. A central agricultural experiment station (founded 1904) is main tained by the Government at Santiago de las Vegas ; and there is an agricultural-college for the scientific teaching and improvement of farming in each of the six provinces.
Stock-breeding was the all-important industry in the early history of the island, down to about the latter part of The 18th century. Droughts are a drawback to this industry; and though the best ranges, under favourable conditions, are luxuriant, never theless the pastures are generally mediocre. Practically nothing has yet been done in the study of native grasses and the intro duction of exotic species. In the decade after 1898 particularly great progress was made in raising live stock. The fishing and sponge industries are important.
Manufactures.—In of all wage-earners were engaged in agriculture, fishing and mining, 20% in manufactures, and 15.6% in trade and transportation. Such manufactures as are of any consequence are mostly connected with the sugar and tobacco industries. Forest resources have been but slightly touched (more so since the end of Spanish rule) except mahogany, which goes to the United States, and cedar, which is used to box tobacco products, much going also to the United States. The value of forest products in 1919 amounted to $2,302,892. There are some tanneries, some preparation of fruit products and some old handicraft industries like the making of hats ; but these are of comparatively scant importance. Despite natural advantages for all meat industries, canned meats have generally been im ported. The leading manufactures are cigars and cigarettes, sugar, rum and whisky. The tobacco industries are very largely con centrated in Havana, and there are factories in Santiago de las egas and Be j ucal. About half the production of tobacco is exported, most of which goes to the United States. Nearly 130, 000,000 cigars a year are exported, 1o,000,000 boxes of cigarettes and amounts of cut tobacco. The sugar industry is not similarly centralized. With the improvement of methods the old partially refined grades (moscobados) have disappeared. The sugar manu facturing industry produces products valued at more than one half billion dollars per year.
Mining.—Mining is of considerable importance. The Cobre copper mines near Santiago were once the richest in the world. They were worked from 1524 until about 1730, when they were abandoned for almost a century, after which they were re-opened and greatly developed. In 1828-40 about 2 million dollars' worth of ore was shipped yearly to the United States alone. Later the mines were again abandoned and flooded, the mining property being ruined during the civil wars. Finally, after 1900 they again became prosperous producers. The "Cobre" mine is one of the most famous and productive of various copper properties. Mata hambre mine in Pinar del Rio province now leads. The output in 1926 amounted to 26,100,000 lb., most of which was exported. Iron and manganese have been greatly developed. Iron is now the most important mineral product. The iron ores are even more ac cessible than those of the Lake Superior region in the United States, and mining is entirely open-cut and terrace work. The chief mines are at Daiquiri, near Santiago, near Nipe, on the north coast, and near Mayari in Oriente. Nearly the entire product goes to the United States. The first exports from the Daiquiri district were made by an American company in 1884; the Nipe (Cagimaya) mines became prominent in promise in 1906. The shipments from Oriente province from 1884 to 1901 aggregated 5,053,847 long tons, almost all going to the United States (which is true of other mineral products also) . After 1900 production was greatly in creased, reaching half a million tons annually by 1906 and main taining that average up to the year 1927. There are small mines in Santa Clara and Camaguey provinces. Manganese is mined mainly near La Maya and El Cristo in Oriente. Evidences of ancient gold and silver workings remain near Holguin and Gibara, and it is possible that some of these are still exploitable. Mining for the precious metals ceased at a very early date, after rich discoveries were made on the continent. Bituminous products, though, as already stated, widely distributed, are not as yet much developed. The most important workings are in Matanzas and Santa Clark, provinces. Petroleum has been used to some extent both as a fuel and as an illuminant. Small amounts of asphalt have been sent to the United States. Grahamite and glance-pitch are common and are exported. The commercial production of stones, brick and cement is of rapidly increasing importance. There are numerous small limekilns and the number of small brick plants is legion.
Commerce.—In 1902-06 exports and imports averaged $177, 882,640 annually; in 1914, $300,000,000 and in 1924, Farm products constitute almost all exports, and import3 are chiefly for an agricultural population that produces for export rather than for consumption. Of the total exports 1922-26, sugar formed 85.7%, tobacco and fruit products 8.5%, all other items such as copper, live stock, lumber, etc., representing less than 6%. Among her imports food-stuffs rank highest, accounting for about one-third of the total, while textiles come next, and machin ery and implements follow.
Out of $301,708,731 worth of exports from Cuba in 1926, the United States took $242,881,819, while Great Britain was in second place with $21,981,16o. The same year the United States furnished Cuba with $160,104,563 worth of imports out of a total of $260,826,454, while Great Britain was again placed sec ond with $12,645,320. This preponderance of trade with the United States is due in part to a reciprocal preferential tariff of 20%.
Communications.—No part of the island is far distant from some one of a great number of excellent harbours. Along the 1,056 m. of the north coast are the following excellent deep water harbours : Bahia Honda, Cabanas, Havana, Matanzas, Car denas, Sagua, Nuevitas, Gibara, Nipe and Baracoa, while on the southern coast, measuring 1,118 m., are found, among many others, Guantanamo, Santiago, Manzanillo, Trinidad and Cien fuegos. Most of these are connected with the interior by roads and railroads. The majority are visited regularly by steamers from foreign parts, while coast-wise trade is carried on between them and a great number of lesser but serviceable harbours. In 1926 over 7,000 vessels with some 24,000,00o tonnage engaged in foreign trade entered and cleared all ports, while i 1,000 vessels of over 2,000,000 aggregate tonnage carried on coast-wise traffic. Although there is a net-work of roads, most of them are primitive and fit only for the strongly built, heavy two-wheeled carts char acteristic of a century ago. By 1925, however, there were 205 m. of good metalled roads, 212 m. additional that were passable all the year, and some 1,300 m. more that were passable only during the dry season. Construction has been begun on a great central motor highway to run the length of the island with branches to many of the ports.
In railway building Cuba has not been so backward. Through trunk routes reach from end to end of the island and to all of the principal harbours. The first railway in the island was opened from Havana to Guines (45 m.) in 1837. By 1927 the total length of railways was 3,80o miles. The United Railways of Havana, owned by an English company, have 784 m. of track reaching from the capital southward through the Vuelta Abajo tobacco region to Batabano, the port of shipment for the Isle of Pines with spurs north and south to Matanzas, Cardenas and other points. The Cuban railway, 647 m., American owned, forms the eastern section of the Havana–Santiago route running from Santa Clara to Santiago and connecting also with Antilla on the north coast and Manzanillo on the south. The Cuban Central railway, 36o m., crosses the island from Concha and Caibarien on the north coast to Cienfuegos on the south. The Western rail way (147 m.) runs from Havana along the south base of the Organos mountains to Mendoza and Guane in Pinar del Rio. Other railways are short and serve mainly to connect with these trunk lines. On many of the large sugar estates private railways have been built in order to reach the trunk lines with their products. The total length of these private lines is about 2,790 miles. There are about 25o m. of electric railways. A notable feature of the railway system is the connection by ferry across the Straits of Florida from Havana to Key West, whereby freight and passenger cars may be transferred from one country to the other without unloading. The time required to cross the Straits is from 7 to 9 hours. On the American side the ferries connect with the Florida East Coast railway which in 1908 opened its extension of loo m. built on concrete viaducts over the long line of keys running to Key West. An aeroplane service for mail and passengers is also maintained be tween Florida and Cuba, and along the island between Havana and Santiago.
The telegraph (838 m. in 1928) and telephone systems are owned by the Government. Tele phone service now reaches vir tually every section and long dis tance connection is possible with the United States and England. Cable service, too, is maintained between Cuba and the above countries. There are nine wire less stations operated by the Government.
The negro element is strongest in the province of Oriente and weakest in Camaguey; in the former it constituted 43. 1 % of the population, in the latter 18.6%, and in Havana city 22.3%. In Guantanamo, in Santiago de Cuba, and Colon they exceeded the whites in number. Regla and San Antonio de los Banos had the largest proportion of white population, more than three-fourths. The position of the negroes in Cuba is exceptional. Despite the long period of slavery they are decidedly below the whites in num ber. The Spanish slave laws (although in practice often fright fully abused) were always comparatively generous to the slave, making relatively easy, among other things, the purchase of his freedom, the number of free blacks being always great. The wars of 1868-78 and 1895-98 and the threatened war of 1906 all helped to give to the negro element its high position. There is prac tically no colour caste in Cuba; politically the negro is the white man's equal; socially there is very little ostensible inequality and almost perfect toleration. Miscegenation of blacks and whites was extremely common before emancipation. It is sometimes said that since then there has been a countertendency, but it is impos sible to prove such a statement conclusively.
Cuba is overwhelmingly Roman Catholic in religion, but under the new Republic there is a complete separation of church and State, and liberalism and indifference are increasing. Illiteracy is extremely wide-spread. In 1919 the census showed 61 % of native white, and 54.5% of coloured Cuban citizens, and 82.1% of Span ish citizens could read. A revolution in education was begun the first year of the U.S. military occupation and has continued under the republic.
There are six provinces—Pinar del Rio, Havana, Matanzas, Santa Clara, Camaguey, and Oriente, at the east end. Each has a provincial governor and assembly chosen directly by the people, generally charged with independent control of matters affecting the province; but the president may interfere against an abuse of power by either the governor or the assembly. Municipalities are administered by mayors (alcaldes) and assemblies elected by the people, and control strictly municipal affairs. The "termino municipal" is the chief political and administrative civil division. It is an urban district together with contiguous rural territory. Its divisions are "barrios." The president may interfere if neces sary in the municipality as in the province ; and so may the gov ernor of the province. But all interference is subject to review of claims by the courts. Both provinces and municipalities are for bidden by the constitution to contract debts without a coincident provision of permanent revenue for their settlement.
The franchise is granted to every male Cuban 21 years of age not mentally incapacitated nor previously convicted of crime nor serving in the army or navy of the State. Foreigners may become naturalized in five years. The Government may not subsidize any religion.
Primary education is free and compulsory, and its expenses are paid by the central Government when the province or municipality cannot bear them. Secondary and advanced education is con trolled by the State. In the last days of Spanish rule (1894), there were 904 public and 704 private schools, and not more than 6o,000 pupils enrolled ; in 1927 there were 3, 702 elementary schools with an enrolment of 321,82i. There were also 7o travelling teachers who brought instruction to 3,435 children, and 82 night schools for working people with 3,679 pupils. There existed also 467 private schools, with 30, 293 pupils. In 1919 the children of school age-5 to 17—amounted to 34.6% of the population; of these 31.2% attended school; the percentage of attendants was twice as large as in 1900. Private schools, some of very high grade, draw many pupils. The University of Havana (founded 1728) was given greatly improved facilities, especially of material equip ment, by the American military government, and in 1923 was thoroughly reorganized. In 1907 the number of students was 554. In 1927 it had 5,473 students. Below the university there are six provincial institutes, one in each province, in each of which there is a preparatory department, a department of secondary education, and (this due to peculiar local conditions) a school of surveying; and in that of Havana commercial departments in addition. In 1915 a law created a Normal school for men and one for women in each province. In Havana, also, there is a school of painting and sculpture, a school of arts and trades, and a national library, all of which are supported or subventioned by the national Government, as are also a public library in Matanzas, and the agricultural experiment station at Santiago de las Vegas. In connection with the university is a botanical garden; with a biological laboratory, a national sanitation bureau and special services for small-pox, glanders and yellow fever. Independent of the Government are various schools and learned societies in Havana (q.v.). A school was established by the Govern ment in Key West, Florida (U.S.A.), in 1905, for the benefit of the Cuban colony there. Finally, the Government sustains penal establishments, reform schools, hospitals, dispensaries and asy lums in every considerable town.
Finanee.—In 1891-96 the average annual income was $20, the annual average expenditure $25,967,139. More than half of the revenue was derived from customs duties. Every Cuban paid about twice as heavy taxes as a Spaniard of the Peninsula. Very little was spent on sanitation, roads, other public works and education. Lotteries, which were an important source of revenue under Spain, were abolished under the Republic. The debt resting on the colony in 1895 (a large part of it as a result of the war of 1868-78, the entire cost of which was laid upon the island, but a part as the result of Spain's war adventures in Mexico and San Domingo, home loans, etc.) was $168,500,000. The attainment of independence freed the island from this debt, and from enormous contemplated additions to cover the expense in curred by Spain during the last insurrection. Since that time the public finances have greatly improved, with enlarged income and all foreign expenditures eliminated. The debt on Sept. 30, 1927, was $95,918,700, itemized as follows: foreign debt, and domestic debt, $10,614, 200.
The following table shows the national revenue and expenditure for the years 1919-2o to 1925-26:- Revenue Expenditure1919-20 . . . . . $91,726,152 1920-21 64,446,000 1922-23 54,852,102 1923-24 1924-25 68,500,000 61,672,169 1925-26 84,791,650 64,780,250 The period 1923-6 showed a considerable surplus, which was ap plied to the reduction of the public debt. United States and Brit ish investments, always important in the agriculture and manu factures of the island, greatly increased following 1898, and by 1926 amounted to $1,5oo,000.000 and £14,000,00o respectively. American investments were $8o,000,000 in 1901. While most of the American money is in sugar, there are also large sums in tobacco, mining, fruit, railways, street-car companies, docks, elec tric light and power companies, telephone companies, banks, hotels, steamship lines and Cuban bonds. Under a law of Nov. 7, 1914, a Cuban coinage system similar to that of the United States was introduced. American money is also legal tender and is in general use.
Cuba was discovered by Christopher Columbus in the course of his first voyage, on Oct. 27, 1492. In 1508 Sebastian de Ocampo circumnavigated it. In 1511 Diego Velazquez began the conquest of the island. Baracoa (the landing point), Bayamo, Santiago de Cuba, Puerto Principe, Sancti Spiritus, Trinidad and the original Havana were all founded by 1515. Velazquez's reputation and legends of wealth drew many immigrants to the island. From Cuba went the expeditions that discovered Yucatan (1517), and explored the shores of Mexico, Hernando Cortes's expedition for the inva sion of Mexico, and de Soto's for the exploration of Florida. The last two had a pernicious effect on Cuba, draining it of horses, money and of men. At least as early as 1523 the African slave trade was begun. In 1J44 the Indians, so far as they had not suc cumbed to the labour of the mines and fields to which they were put by the Spaniards, were proclaimed emancipated. The admin istration in the i6th century was loose and violent. The local authorities were divided among themselves by bitter feuds; brigandage, mutinies and internal struggles disturbed the peace. As a result of the transfer of Jamaica to England, the population of Cuba was augmented by Jamaican immigrants to about 30,000 in the middle of the 17th century.
The activity of English and French pirates began in the 16th, and reached its climax in the middle of the 17th century. So early also began dissatisfaction with economic regulations and even grave resistance to their enforcement. Illicit trade with privateers and foreign colonies had begun long before, and in the 17th and i8th centuries was the basis of the island's wealth. In 1 762 Havana was captured after a long resistance by a Brit ish force under Admiral Sir George Pocock and the earl of Albemarle, with heavy loss to the besiegers. It was returned to Spain the next year in exchange for the Floridas. The British opened the port to commerce and the slave trade and revealed its possibilities. The Government of Spain, beginning in 1764, made notable breaches in the old monopolistic system of colonial trade throughout America; and Cuba received special privileges. Spain paid increasing attention to the island, and in harmony with the policy of the Laws of the Indies many decrees intended to stimu late agriculture and commerce were issued by the crown, first in the form of monopolies, then with increased freedom and with bounties. Various colonial products and the slave trade were favoured in this way. After the cession of the Spanish portion of Santo Domingo to France, hundreds of Spanish families emigrated to Cuba, and many thousand more immigrants, mainly French, followed them during the revolution of the blacks. Most of them settled in Oriente province, where their names and blood are still apparent, and with their cafetales and sugar plantations converted that region from neglect and poverty to high prosperity.
Under a succession of liberal governors (especially Luis de las Casas, 1790-96, and the marques de Someruelos, 1799-1813), at the end of the i8th century and the first part of the i9th, when the wars in Europe cut off Spain almost entirely from the colony, Cuba was practically independent. Trade was comparatively free, and worked a revolution in culture and material conditions. Gen. Las Casas, in particular, left behind him in Cuba an undying memory of good efforts. Free commerce with foreigners—a fact after 18o9—was definitely legalized in 1818 (confirmed in 1824)• The State tobacco monopoly was abolished in 1817. The reported populations by the (untrustworthy) censuses of and 1817 were 161,670; 273,301 and 553,033• Something of political freedom was enjoyed during the two terms of Spanish constitu tional Government under the constitution of 1812. The sharp division between creoles and peninsulars (i.e., between those born in Cuba and those born in Spain), the question of annexation to the United States or possibly to some other power, the plotting for independence, all go back to the early years of the century.
Misgovernment.—Partly owing to these political and social divisions, conspiracies being rife during 1820-30, and partly as preparation for the defence against Mexico and Colombia, who throughout these same years were threatening the island with invasion, the captains-general, in 1825, received the powers above referred to, which became, as time passed, monstrously in dis accord with the general tendencies of colonial Government and with increasing liberties in Spain, but continued to be the spiritual basis of Spanish rule in the island. Among the governors was Miguel Tacon , a forceful and high-handed soldier ; he ruled as a tyrant, made many reforms, and left Havana, in particular, full of municipal improvements. The good he did was limited to the spheres of public works and police ; in other respects his rule was a pernicious influence for Cuba. Politically it was marked by the proclamation at Santiago in 1836, without his con sent, of the Spanish constitution of 1834; he repressed the move ment, and in 1837 the deputies of Cuba to the Cortes of Spain (to which they were admitted in the two earlier constitutional periods) were excluded from that body, and it was declared in the national constitution that Cuba (and Porto Rico) should be governed by "special laws." The inapplicability of many laws passed for the Peninsula was indeed notorious; and Cuban opinion had repeatedly, through official bodies, protested against laws thus imposed that worked injustice, and had pleaded for special con sideration of colonial conditions. The promise of "special laws" based upon such consideration was therefore not, in itself, unjust, nor unwelcome. But as the colony had no voice in the Cortes, and the "special laws" were never passed, the arbitrary rule of the captains-general remained quite supreme. The rule of Leopoldo O'Donnell was marked in 1844 by a bloody persecution of negroes for a supposed plot against their masters; O'Donnell's actions being partly due to the inquietude that had prevailed for some years over the supposed machinations of English abolitionists and even of English official residents in the island, and also over the mutual jealousies and supposed annexation ambitions of Great Britain and the United States.
A Cuban international question had arisen before 1820. Spain, the United States, England, France, Colombia and Mexico were all fully involved in it, the first four continually. In the 185os a strong pro-slavery interest in the United States advocated the acquisition of the island. One feature of this was the "Ostend Manifesto" (see BUCHANAN, JAMES), in which the ministers of the United States at London, Paris and Madrid declared that if Spain refused a money offer for the colony the United States should seize it. Their Government gave this document publicity. The Cuban policy of Presidents Pierce and Buchanan (during 18S3-61) was vainly directed to acquiring the island. From 1849 to 1851 there were three abortive filibustering expeditions from the United States, two being under a Spanish general, Narciso Lopez (1798 1851). Domestic discontent had become acute by 1850, and from then on to 1868 there was conflict between liberal and reactionary sentiment, centring about the asserted connivance of the captains general in the illegal slave trade (declared illegal by the treaties of 1817 and 1835 between Great Britain and Spain), the notorious immorality and prodigal wastefulness of the Government, and the selfish exploitation of the colony by Spaniards and the Spanish Government. From early in the 19th century there had always been separatists, reformists and repressionists in the island, but they were individuals rather than groups. The last were penin sulars, the others mainly creoles, and among the wealthy classes of the latter the separatists gradually gained increasing support.
Civil Wars.—An ineffective and corrupt administration, a grave economic condition, new and heavy taxes, military repression, recurring heavy deficits in the budget, adding to a debt (about $150,000,000 in i868) already very large and burdensome, and the complete fiasco of the junta of inquiry of Cuban and Porto Rican representatives which met in Madrid in 1866-67—all were important influences favouring the outbreak of the Ten Years' War. Among those who waged the war some desired reforms; others annexation to the United States ; others, independence. The reformists demanded action against slavery, assimilation of rights between peninsulars and creoles and the practical recog nition of equality (e.g., in the matter of office-holding) and guar antees of personal liberties. The separatists, headed by Carlos Manuel de Cespedes (1819-1874), a wealthy planter who pro claimed the revolution at Yara on the loth of October, demanded the same reforms, including gradual emancipation of the slaves with indemnity to owners, and the grant of free and universal suffrage. War was confined throughout the ten years almost wholly to the east provinces. The policy of successive captains general was alternately uncompromisingly repressive and con ciliatory. The Spanish volunteers committed horrible excesses in Havana and other places ; the rebels also burned and killed indiscriminatingly, and the war became increasingly cruel and sanguinary. Intervention by the United States seemed probable, but did not come. Martinez Campos in Jan. 1878 secured the acceptance by the rebels of the convention of Zanjon, which promised amnesty, liberty to rebel slaves, the abolition of slavery, reforms in Government and colonial autonomy. A small rising after peace (the "Little War" of 1879-1880) was easily repressed. Gradual abolition of slavery was declared by a law of Feb. 13, 188o; definitive abolition in 1886; and in 1893 equal civil status of blacks and whites was proclaimed by Gen. Calleja. Coolie im portation from China had been stopped in 1871.
The change from the old regime was only superficial. The Spanish Constitution of 1876 was proclaimed in Cuba in 1881. In 1878-95 political parties had a complex development. The Lib erals were becoming radical, the Union Constitutionalists, con servative ; and after 1893 a Reformist Party was launched that drew the compromisers and the waverers. The demands of the Liberals were as in 1868; those for personal and property rights were much more definitely stated, and among explicit reforms demanded were the separation of civil and military power, gen eral recognition of administrative responsibility under a colonial autonomous constitutional regime; customs reforms and reci procity with the United States were also demanded. As for the representation accorded Cuba in the Spanish Cortes, as a rule about a quarter of her deputies were Cuban-born, and the choice of only a few autonomists was allowed by those who controlled the Cuban elections. A reciprocity arrangement with the United States was in force from 1891 to 1894 and was found to be extremely beneficial to Cuba.
Discontent grew, and another war was prepared for. On Feb. 23, 1895, Gen. Calleja suspended the constitutional guarantees. The leading chiefs of the Ten Years' War took the field again —Maximo Gomez, Antonio Maceo, Jose Marti, Calixto Garcia and others. This war was carried to the western provinces, and indeed was fiercest there. Among the military means adopted by the Spaniards to isolate their foe were entrenchments, barb wire fences, and lines of block-houses across the narrow parts of the island, and non-combatant detention camps. The latter measure produced extreme suffering and much starvation. In Oct. 1897 the Spanish premier, P. M. Sagasta, announced the policy of autonomy, and the new dispensation was proclaimed in Cuba in December. But again all final authority was reserved to the captain-general. The system was never to have a practical trial, although a full Government was quickly organized under it. President McKinley, while opposing recognition of the rebels, affirmed the possibility of intervention; Spain resented this atti tude; and finally, in Feb. 1898, the United States battleship "Maine" was blown up—by whom will probably never be known —in the harbour of Havana.
American Occupation.—On April 20, the United States de manded the withdrawal of Spanish troops. War followed at once. A fine Spanish squadron seeking to escape from Santiago harbour was utterly destroyed by the American blockading force on July 3 ; Santiago was invested by land forces, and on July 5, sur rendered. Other operations in Cuba were slight. By the treaty of Paris, signed on Dec. Io, Spain "relinquished" the island to the United States in trust for its inhabitants ; the temporary character of American occupation being recognized throughout the treaty, in accord with the terms of the American declaration of war, in which the United States disclaimed any intention to control the island except for its pacification, and expressed the determination to leave the island thereupon to the control of its people. Spanish authority ceased on January r, 1899, and was followed by American "military" rule from Jan. 1, 1899 to May 20, 1902. During these three years the great majority of offices were filled by Cubans. Very much was done for public works, sanitation, the reform of administration, civil service and educa tion. Most notable of all, yellow fever was eradicated where it had been endemic for centuries. A constitutional convention sat at Havana from Nov. 5, 1900 to Feb. 21, 1901. Certain definite conditions known as the Platt Amendment were finally imposed by the United States, and accepted by Cuba (on June 12, 1901) as a part of her Constitution. By these Cuba was bound not to incur debts her current revenues will not bear; to continue the sanitary administration undertaken by the military Govern ment of intervention; to lease naval stations (now at Bahia Honda and Guantanamo) to the United States; and finally, the right of the United States to intervene, if necessary, in the affairs of the island was explicitly affirmed. The status of the Isle of Pines (area, 865 square miles; population, 4,288 in 1919) was left an open question by the treaty of Paris, but a decision of the United States Supreme Court which recognized it as a part of Cuba was finally ratified by the United States Senate on March 13, 1925.
The Republic.—The first Cuban congress met on May 5, 1902, and took over the Government from the American military authorities on May 20; Tomas Estrada Palma (1835-1908) became the first president of the Republic. Material prosperity from 1902 to 1906 was very great ; but various political, social and economic conditions led once more to revolution. Congress neg lected to pass certain laws required by the Constitution re garding municipal autonomy, independence of the judiciary, and congressional representation of minority parties. The pre liminaries of the elections of Dec. 1905 and March 1906 being marked by frauds and injustice, the Liberals deserted the polls at those elections, and instead of appealing to judicial tribunals controlled by the Moderates, issued a manifesto of revolution on July 28, 1906. This insurrection rapidly assumed large pro portions. The Government was weak and lacked moral support in the whole island. After repeated petitions from President Palma for intervention by the United States, commissioners were sent from Washington to act as mediators.
All possible efforts to secure a compromise that would preserve the Republic failed. The president resigned (on Sept. 28), Con gress dispersed without choosing a successor, and as an alterna . tive to anarchy the United States was compelled to proclaim on Sept. 29, 1906, a provisional Government,—to last "long enough to restore order and peace and public confidence," and hold new elections. The insurrectionists promptly disbanded. Government was maintained under the Cuban flag,—the diplo matic and consular relations with even the United States re mained outwardly unchanged ; and the regular constitutional forms were maintained so far as possible. No use was made of American military force save as a passive background to the Government. The first effort was simply to hold the country together, without undertaking much that could divide public opinion; and later to establish a few fundamental laws which, when intervention ceased, should give greater simplicity, strength and stability to a new native Government. These laws strictly defined the powers of the president ; more clearly separated the executive departments, so as to lessen friction and jealousies; reformed the courts and administrative routine; and increased the strength of the provinces at the expense of the municipalities. On Jan. 28, 1909, the American administration ceased, and the Republic was a second time inaugurated, with Gen. Jose Miguel Gomez (b. 1856) as president and Alfredo Zayas as vice presi dent. Both were Liberals. The last American troops were with drawn on April 1, 1909.
Gomez remained in office until May 20, 1913. His term was marked by a-return to the traditional political evils of the former Spanish colony; but though the Government was corrupt the country prospered and public works were developed. Among a number of political disturbances the race war of 1912 was the most serious. This was a negro uprising in Oriente which, how ever, was quickly suppressed ; a body of U.S. marines was landed for the protection of foreign nationals and their property. Owing to friction within the Liberal Party the Conservative candidate, Gen. Mario G. Menocal, was elected in 1912 and took office in 1913.
Charges of maladministration and dictatorial methods were persistently brought against Menocal's Government, which was unable, furthermore, to show much in the way of positive achieve ment. Nevertheless, the first three years of his term were moder ately successful. Menocal was again a candidate in 1916, and won the election by the employment of violence and other im proper methods. In consequence there was a serious civil war under the leadership of Gomez in Feb. 1917, but Menocal was able to defeat his opponents and entered upon his second term. Meanwhile, Cuba had declared war on Germany on April 7, 1917. Great help was rendered through stimulating the production of sugar for sale to the Allies. In anticipation of the elections of 1920 Gen. Enoch H. Crowder of the U.S. army was invited in 1919 to draw up an election law. This he did, but the law was flagrantly disregarded in the ensuing elections. Alfredo Zayas, who had been the Liberal candidate in 1916, was now backed by Menocal in a Conservative-Popular alliance against Gomez, who was nominated by the Liberals. Zayas was successful but Gomez raised a protest, and new partial elections were called for at the suggestion of Gen. Crowder. Gomez withdrew before they could be completed, asserting that the Government methods were un fair, and Zayas had an easy victory.
Political opposition, allayed by an adroit distribution of patron age in 1928, revived against President Machado as the economic depression deepened. The Chadbourne Agreement of Dec. 1930 failed to stabilize the price of sugar and no substantial relief came from the public works program. Repressive measures, instead of silencing opposition, incited a violent outbreak and ruthless exe cution without civil trial was resorted to as the army maintained the government. At this point the good offices of the new United States ambassador, Sumner Wells, were accepted, a general am nesty was declared and constitutional and political reforms were undertaken. But the economic crisis would not wait and a general strike in Aug. 1933 forced Machado to flee the country.
A combination of parties named Dr. Carlos Manuel de Ces pedes as provisional President and set aside the Constitution of 1928. But the rank and file of the army revolted against its officers and joined with a radical group of Havana University students to set up a revolutionary Junta with Dr. Grau San Martin at its head.
After four months of intermittent and bloody strife, during which time the United States refused recognition of any govern ment, Dr. Grau, deserted by some of the students and faced with renewed strikes, retired, and the Junta shortly thereafter, Jan. 18, surrendered power to Col. Carlos Mendieta, upon whom all parties agreed to confer the Presidency. Recognition was promptly granted by the United States and other countries.
A commercial treaty was negotiated reducing the tariff on Cuban sugar provided its quantity did not exceed 18% of the United States consumption of the previous year, and some revival of trade occurred.
Politicians looked forward impatiently to the oft-postponed elections; discontented students and labourers staged another general strike and an abortive revolution, March 1935; but Mendieta and his chief of staff, Fulgencio Batista, asserted their dictatorial authority more frankly and postponed the election until Dec. BIBLIOGRAPHY—E. Pechardo, Geografia de le isla de Cuba (Havana, Bibliography—E. Pechardo, Geografia de le isla de Cuba (Havana, 1854) ; M. Rodriguez-Ferrer, Naturaleza y civzlizacion de ... Cuba, vol. i (Madrid, 1876) ; United States Geological Survey, 22nd Annual Report (1901) ; ibid., Bulletin No. 192 (1902) ; R. T. Hill, Cuba and Porto Rico with the other West Indies (New York, 1898) ; E. M. Masse, L'lle de Cuba (Paris, 1825) ; D. Turnbull, Travels in the West (London, 1840) ; R. R. Madden, The Island of Cuba (London, F. Matthews, The New-Born Cuba (New York, 1899) ; H. C. Brown, "Report on Mineral Resources of Cuba," Civil Report of General Leonard Wood, governor of Cuba (1902) , vol. v.