CYCLING, the clipped term now given comprehensively to the sport or exercise of riding a bicycle (q.v.) or tricycle (q.v.).
History.—Suggestions of vehicles having two or more wheels and propelled by the muscular effort of the rider or riders are to be found in very early times, even on the bas-reliefs of Egypt and Babylon and the frescoes of Pompeii; but though sporadic ex amples of such contrivances are recorded in the I 7th and i8th centuries, it was apparently not till the beginning of the 19th century that they were used to any considerable extent. A "velocipede" invented by Blanchard and Magurier, and described in the Journal de Paris on July 27, 1779, differed little from the celerifere proposed by another Frenchman, de Sivrac, in 1690 ; it consisted of a wooden bar rigidly connecting two wheels placed one in front of the other, and was propelled by the rider, seated astride the bar, pushing against the ground with his feet. The next advance was made in the draisine of Freiherr Karl Drais von Sauerbronn (1785-1851), described in his Abbildung and Beschreibung seiner neu er f uvdenen Lau f maschine (Nuremberg, 1817). In this the front wheel was pivoted on the frame so that it could be turned sideways by a handle, thus serving to steer the machine. A similar machine, known by the name "celeripede," also with a movable front wheel, is said to have been ridden by J. N. Niepice in Paris some years before. In England the draisine achieved a great, though temporary, vogue under various names such as velocipede, patent accelerator, bivector, bicipedes, pe destrian curricle (patented by Dennis Johnson in 1818), dandy horse, hobby horse, etc., and for a time it was popular in America also. The propulsion of the draisine by pushing with the feet being alleged to give rise to diseases of the legs, arrangements were soon suggested, as by Louis Gompertz in England in 1821, by which the front wheel could be rotated by the hands with the aid of a system of gearing, but the idea of providing mechanical connections between the feet and the wheels was apparently not thought of till later. Pedals with connecting rods working on the rear axle are said to have been applied to a tricycle in 1834 by Kirkpatrick McMillan, a Scottish blacksmith of Keir, Dumfries shire, and to a draisine by him in 184o, and by a Scottish cooper, Gavin Dalzell, of Lesmahagow, Lanarkshire, about 1845. The draisine thus fitted had wooden wheels, with iron tyres, the lead ing one about 3oin. in diameter and the driving one about 4oin., and thus it formed the prototype, though not the ancestor, of the modern rear-driven safety bicycle.
For the next 20 years little was done, and then began the evolution of the high "ordinary" bicycle, with a large driving wheel in front and a small trailing one behind. Rubber tyres, in place of iron ones, appeared in 1868, and in two or three years were made an inch or an inch and a half in width. Suspension wheels, with wire spokes in tension, were seen at the Crystal Palace, London, on the "Phantom" of W. F. Reynolds and J. A. Mays in 1869, and early in the same year the manufacture of bicycles, at first for export to France, was begun in England by the Coventry Sewing Machine Company, till then makers of sewing machines. There was a rapid growth in the size of the front wheel with a corresponding shrinkage in the rear wheel until by 1874, the date of the invention of the tangent wheel by James Starley, 54in. wheels were being made. It is important (historically) to remember that James Starley died before John Kemp Starley (his nephew) began work. The high bicycle was now fairly established in form and very fast times were made with it both on the road and on the racing path. In 1882 H. L. Cortis rode 2om. 3ooyds. in one hour, and in April 1884 Thomas Stevens started from San Francisco to ride round the world, a feat which he accomplished in Dec. 1886.
The improvement of the high bicycle was attempted in two di rections. On the one hand it was modified by placing the rider farther back, his position "over his work" being ensured by arranging the pedals immediately below him and connecting them to the front wheel, which was usually reduced in size, by levers and cranks or by chain-gearing, of ten with a multiplying action. On the other, the rear wheel was enlarged and made the driving wheel. This latter developed into the modern rear-driven safety. There are numerous claimants for the invention—or rather the reinvention—of this type, but it appears that the credit for its practical and commercial introduction in substantially its pres ent form is due to J. K. Starley in England. His "Rover," brought out early in 1885, had two nearly equal wheels, the driving wheel 3oin. in diameter and the steering 3 2in., and the rider sat so far back that he could not be thrown forward over the handles. The motion imparted by the pedals to a sprocket wheel mounted between the wheels was transmitted by an end less chain to the rear wheel, and by sufficiently increasing the size of this sprocket wheel the machine could be made to travel as far or farther than the "ordinary" for each complete revolu tion of the pedals. From about 1890 the "safety" monopolized the field. At first it was fitted with the narrow rubber tyres cus tomary at the time, but these gave way to pneumatic tyres, in vented in 1888 by J. B. Dunlop, a Scotsman practising as a veterinary surgeon in Belfast, whose idea, however, had been anticipated in the English patent No. 10,990 taken out by R. W. Thomson in 1845. The result was a great gain in comfort, due to reduction of vibration, and a remarkable increase of speed or, alternatively, decrease of exertion. The beginning of the loth century saw the introduction of two innovations : one was the "free-wheel," a device which allows the driving wheel to rotate independently of the chain and pedals, . so that the rider, con trolling his speed with powerful brakes, can "coast" down a hill using the stationary pedals as foot-rests; and the other was the motor-cycle, in which a petrol-engine relieves him, except at start ing, from all personal exertion, though at the cost of considerable vibration.
The safety bicycle, with pneumatic tyres, rendered cycling uni versally popular, not merely as a pastime but as a convenient means of locomotion for everyday use. Made with a drop-frame, it also enabled women to cycle without being confined to a heavy tricycle or compelled to assume "rational dress." In consequence there was an enormous expansion in the cycle industry. In Britain the demand for machines had become so great by 1895 that the makers were unable to cope with it. Numbers of new fac tories were started, small shops grew into large companies, and the capital invested advanced by millions of pounds. The makers who had devoted their mechanical skill to perfecting the methods of cycle-construction were swallowed up by company promoters and adventurers, bent simply upon filling their own pockets. In America the manufacture of bicycles was not begun until about 1878, when it was introduced by A. A. Pope (1843-1909), and even by 1890 the value of the products barely exceeded 21 million dollars, while for several years later much of the steel tubing required for bicycle manufacture continued to be imported from Great Britain. The industry, however, thanks to auto matic machinery and perfect organization grew rapidly, and in 1900 the value of its products was nearly 32 million dollars. In the two years 1897 and 1898 the exports of cycles and cycle parts alone were worth nearly 14 million dollars, though they fell off in subsequent years, and British makers had to contend with an American invasion in addition to their domestic troubles. But the competition was short-lived. The American makers sent over machines with single tube tyres and wooden rims, which did not secure the approval of the British purchaser, and so they too lost their hold. In the opening years of the loth century the industry in Great Britain gradually recovered itself. More attention was paid to the production of cheap machines which were sound and trustworthy, and sales were further stimulated by the introduc tion of systems of deferred payments. In 1905 about 600,000 machines were made in Great Britain, and 47,604 were exported, the total value of the home-market for cycles and their parts being about 31 millions sterling, and of the export trade about one million. In the same year the number of machines imported was only 2,345 Touring Clubs.—Cycle tours were taken and cycling clubs established almost as soon as the cycle appeared, the Pickwick Bicycle Club in London, founded in 1870, being the oldest in the world. The organization of these clubs is chiefly of a social char acter, and a few possess well-appointed club-houses. To a great extent they have been superseded by the large touring organiza tions. The Cyclists' Touring Club, organized in 1878 as the Bi cycle Touring Club, has members scattered through Europe, America and even the East. Many other countries possess na tional clubs, as for instance the League of American Wheelmen, founded in 188o, and the Touring Club de France, founded in 1895, of whose: objects cycling is only one, though the chief. The aim of these national associations, which have formed an inter national touring league, is the promotion of cycle touring. To this end they publish road-books, and journals; they recom mend hotels, with fixed tariffs, in their own and other countries; they appoint representatives to aid their members when touring; and they have succeeded in inducing most governments to allow their members to travel freely across frontiers without paying duty on their machines. In all countries they have erected warning-boards at dangerous places; in France the best route is suggested by a signpost, and cyclists who meet with accidents in lonely places find repair outfits provided for their free use. An other important part of the work of these clubs, either directly or indirectly, is the improvement of the roads. France has done more for the cyclist than any other country, owing to the fact that she possesses the best roads, kept up to a certain extent by the cycle tax, whereby the cyclist acquires a certain official po sition and right ; moreover cycles accompanied by their owners are conveyed without extra charge on the railways, and aid is given to the sport and pastime from public funds. In Belgium the cycle has worked a veritable revolution in the national life. The surface of the greater part ,of the country being loose and sandy, the roads have been paved, and this paving is so bad as to be impossible for light traffic. The cycle tax has consequently been devoted, first, to the construction of paths on which cy clists have equal rights with pedestrians, and secondly to the re placing of the paving by macadam. In this way alone cycling has proved of inestimable benefit to Belgium and Luxembourg. In the United States measures for securing good roads and side paths have been introduced in various states, mainly at the insti gation first of cyclists and then of motorists, and in Great Britain the Roads Improvement Association has worked for the same end.
Racing.—Each country also possesses an organization for the government of cycle racing; and although these unions, one ob ject of which—usually the main one—is the encouragement of cycle racing and cycle legislation, boast an enormous member ship, their membership is often composed of clubs and not in dividuals. Among the most important are the National Cyclists' Union of England and the Union Velocipedique of France. These bodies are also bound together by the Union Cycliste Interna tionale which is devoted mainly to the promotion of racing and legislation connected with it all over the world. The National Cyclists' Union, originally the Bicycle Union, which was the parent body of all, formed in Feb. 1878, was the first to put up danger-boards, and also was early instrumental, alone and with the C.T.C., in framing or suggesting laws for the proper govern ment and regulation of cycle traffic, notably in establishing its position as a vehicle in securing universal rights, in endeavouring, again in conjunction with the C.T.C., to increase facilities for the carriage of cycles on the railways, in securing the opening of parks, and in promoting many other equally praiseworthy ob jects. For a number of years, however, it has been more prom inent as the ruling race-governing body. But cycle racing has fallen upon evil days. At one time cycle racing attracted a large number of spectators, but gradually it lost the public favour, or rather was ignored by the public because it became mainly an advertisement for cycle makers. The presence of the man, di rectly or indirectly, in the employ of, or aided by a maker, and the consequent mixing up of trade and sport, lowered racing not only in the public estimation, but in that of all genuine ama teurs. There have always been a few amateurs who have raced for the love of the sport, but the greater number of prominent racing men have raced for the benefit of a firm, so much so that, at one time, an entire section of racing men were classed as "makers' amateurs." They did not confine themselves to the race track, but appropriated the public roads until they became a danger and a nuisance, and road-racing, on the old lines, finally was abolished, though record rides, as they are called, are still indulged in, claims being checked and adjudicated upon by a strong organization, known as the Road Records Association, founded in 1888. The makers' amateurs at least rode to win and to make the best time possible. But the scandal was so great that a system of licensing riders was adopted by the N.C.U., and if this did not effectively kill the sport, the intro duction of waiting races did. There probably is considerable skill in riding two-thirds of a race as slowly as possible, and only hurrying the last part of the last lap, but it does not amuse the public, who want to see a fast race as well as a close finish. The introduction of pacing by multicycles and motors next took from cycle racing what interest was left. A motor race, in which the machines are run at top speed, is more exciting than the spectacle of a motor being driven at a rate which the cyclist can follow with the protection of a wind-shield. In America (see below) this system of proving the capacity of racing machines was carried so far that in 1899 a board track was laid down on the Long Island railway for about 2m. between the metals, and a cyclist named Murphy, followed a train, and protected by enormous wind-shields, succeeded in covering a mile in less than a minute. Other cyclists have devoted themselves, at the instiga tion of makers, to the riding of loom. a day every day for a year. It would be difficult to say what advantage there is in these trials and contests. They are not convincing records, and only prove that some people are willing to take great personal risks for the benefit of their employers. E. Hale, during 1899– 1 covered 32,496m. in 313 days. For many years also long distance races, mostly of six days' duration, have been promoted on covered tracks, and though condemned by all cycling organi zations, they find a great deal of pecuniary support.
Military.—The cycle has also been taken up for military pur poses. For this idea the British army is indebted to Colonel A. R. Savile, who in 1887 organized the first series of cycle manoeuvres in Britain. Since then military cycling has undergone a great development, not only in the country of its origin but in most others.
Recent Developments.—During the period following 1910 the evolution of the bicycle was not maintained, mechanical changes being less frequent and not so drastic as had been the case during the early pneumatic era. After 1918 interest in every branch of cycling increased to a marked extent, and this had its origin in the attitude taken up by the big cycle makers, who, de siring the freedom from trouble which mass production provides, discouraged invention and development and allowed design to stagnate.
Thus an opportunity arose for the assembler or small maker, generally .an active cyclist himself, and invariably a working mechanic. Numbers of such men started in business, making a specialty of bicycles built to order and complying with the cus tomer's own specification. These assemblers purchased parts from the various houses specializing in the production of fittings for the trade and built them up into complete machines. Under their aegis, supported by a growing demand from the large num ber of club riders of both sexes, the light roadster bicycle was evolved, a type which the large manufacturer had persistently ignored for more than a generation.
In addition to reducing the weight of his product, the small maker incorporated certain improvements which hard riders were quick to appreciate; among these were the drop-out rear wheel and the caliper brake, both of which, it is worth noting, were old ideas, the advantages of which had not been realized when they originally appeared on the market. The light-weight bicycle with small (26in.) wheels gave cycling a new lease of life; contemporaneously with its advent came a movement to popularize rational dress among lady cyclists. The fashion of wearing short skirts, aided by the adoption of breeches, by the many women who took up agricultural work during the World War enabled the bifurcated garment to overcome prejudice and to score an almost complete triumph over the skirt. To-day nearly 90% of club women and keen riders wear rationals for their more serious cycling, though skirts are retained for shopping expeditions and short journeys. Many wearers of rational dress use diamond-framed machines.
Officials of the big factories were somewhat slow to note the tendency of demand, and allowed the small makers to obtain a long lead in the production of light bicycles. Ultimately they began to realize the position, and many of them designed light and speedy models to compete with the locally built machines. These may now be procured from most of the large manufac turers, but the small assembler still enjoys the great advantage of being able to comply with the whims of his client, and the ability to build "to order" without undue interruption of his works routine. Another feature of the post-war period has been the revival of interest in tandem riding. This, again, has been fostered by the little maker with the encouragement of club riders.
Road racing has flourished exceedingly. In Europe, America and Australia competitions are run on ordinary racing lines, the riders starting together, or, in the case of handicaps, in the order of their time allowance, the first man to finish being the winner. In Great Britain and Ireland the time trial system is in vogue, and has proved an extraordinary success. So great has the num ber of events become that, in 1922, the most prominent cycling clubs came together and formed the Road Racing Council, to which 8o clubs are affiliated, and which has compiled regulations for the conduct of road trials. The most popular distances are 25, 5o and loom., while several races at 12 and 24 hours are or ganized each year. One of the best things the R.R.C. has done for the sport has been to limit the number of entrants for any race run under its jurisdiction, and in the more important events not more than i oo riders may take part.
The Road Racing Council has managed to cope successfully with that age-old problem, the "trade-assisted amateur" by de creeing that a rider whose performances have been advertised shall not compete in a speed trial promoted by any of its ad herent clubs. The National Cyclists Union does not go as far as this in its efforts to discourage the association of the trade with the sport, but it requests cycle and accessory manufacturers to refrain from quoting the names of riders in their announcements. The legislative bodies of Great Britain are unique in their de sire to prevent the exploitation of wins by amateurs for trade purposes. In every other country where cycle racing flourishes makers are allowed to advertise the exploits of racing amateurs. This is not the only detail in which Britain is peculiar. Whereas professional cycling thrives in every other civilized country, Britain has no professional racing men.
Track racing continues to enjoy great popularity in France, Germany, Belgium, Switzerland, Holland, Norway, Denmark, America, Italy and Australia, but in Great Britain, Spain, Nor way, South Africa and certain other countries, the scarcity of up-to-date tracks prevents the development of this branch of the sport. The annual races for the championships of the world have been continued, the Union Cycliste Internationale having taken over the series which were inaugurated by its predecessor, the International Cyclists' Association. In 1921 the motor-paced race for the amateur title was dropped, and its place as a dis tance test was taken by a road race the distance of which is usually from 1 oo to 120 miles.
Important influences in the development of cycling can be traced to the periodical exhibitions which have been a regular feature since they were first inaugurated by the Stanley Bicycle Club in London in 1878. Since that year London has seen at least one Cycle Show each season, and the idea has been copied and expanded in every country throughout the world. The annual "Show" which cyclists and cycle makers originated has been imi tated by the newer industry which caters for motoring, and now adays Motor Exhibitions are held in every important capital.
The yearly Show has served a dual purpose; it encourages manufacturers to improve their products, each striving to evolve something better than his rivals; thus was mechanical advance ment fostered. Secondly, the exhibitors provide the public with frequent opportunities for inspecting the latest models, with the obvious incentive to purchase the newest types. (H. W. B.) Bicycle Racing in the United States.—Bicycle racing, after many vicissitudes, is now becoming one of the nation's major sports. A troupe of English professionals inaugurated it in this country about 1870 when they introduced the high wheel. The dirt tracks used for trotting races served for the first set of cycling events, staged near Springfield, Massachusetts. With the invention of the safety-wheel about 1889, there came also the board tracks. Americans then took the lead in the sport that they have since maintained. Formerly cycling was extremely popular all over the country. There were tracks from Man hattan Beach to California. Manufacturers of bicycles and acces sories kept the sport alive by organizing competing racing teams. With the coming of the automobile about 1895, cycling, as a utility, died out, only to return later as a sport. It prospered in Salt Lake City, then spread back to the East, with Newark, N.J., as the centre. While there were not in 1928 as many bicycle tracks in America as there were in the old days, the sport was increasing in popularity where tracks were located. Out-door tracks for summer racing are situated in New York, Newark, Chicago, Detroit, Boston, Providence, R.I., Hartford, Conn. and other cities. The track in Chicago, a cement bowl in Humboldt park, is owned by the city. The six-day racing branch of cycling has for many years attracted people by the thousands to Madison Square Garden in New York and to the Coliseum in Chicago, the largest amphitheatres in those cities. In 1927 Detroit, with the completion of its new Olympia holding 17,00o people, saw its first six-day race, and now that city is permanently in the six-day circuit. In New York six-day bicycle racing is witnessed by sport enthusiasts twice a year, in December and March, while Chicago has its two races in October and February.
(W. RA.)