Dutch Language and Literature

DUTCH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. Dutch is spoken in Europe by about Io,000,000 people spread over the present kingdom of the Netherlands, the northern half of Belgium and the northern part of the French Departement du Nord. Out side Europe it is spoken in the Dutch Indies, Dutch Guiana and the Dutch Antilles.

Cape Dutch (Afrikaans), spoken in South Africa, has de veloped into an independent language; its resemblance to Dutch, however, is very great for although its grammar has been con siderably simplified, its vocabulary has for the greater part re mained the same as that of "High" Dutch.

In the United States of America, there are about 250,000 peo ple whose mother-tongue is Dutch, and in Canada the number is estimated at 125,00o. In Ceylon, where Dutch was used in the 18th century as a Church and Government language, it is almost extinct ; only a few Dutch words now remain. The Negro-Dutch with its strong Creole admixtures, spoken at the former Danish Antilles, is doomed.

At an early date the language of the Netherlands occupied an independent position among the Low German dialects spoken along the coasts of the North Sea and Baltic from Dunkirk to Poland. At first it was chiefly the language of western Flanders (with the world-market Bruges), which was dominant, but in the course of the 15th century, Brabant came more to the fore. Ant werp at the height of its prosperity was a metropolis of about inhabitants. In the course of the 16th century, the centre of Dutch culture moved to the northern Netherlands, especially to Holland. During the Eighty Years' War (1568-1648) the province of Holland formed the centre of the resistance against Spanish rule. The northern provinces rallied round Holland, and when free from the Spanish yoke, rose to great prosperity in the 17th century. The southern provinces remained in Spanish pos session and fell into decay. French threatened to supersede the original language. The development of the language in the north was aided by the exodus to Holland of refugees from the prov inces occupied by the Spanish. In the language of Holland this southern Dutch influence is distinctly noticeable. In the 16th century the inhabitants of Holland pronounced the words bijten (to bite), vijf (five), huis (house), muis (mouse), etc., still monophthongal. From the middle of the i6th century the southern Dutch diphthongization spread more and more and has now become general in the educated language of north and south, though the monophthongs still survive in numerous dialects. There still exists considerable difference between the colloquial and the written language of Holland. The more dignified, formal, official terms are originally southern Dutch, whereas colloquial speech has preserved the original linguistic forms. It is also owing to this old southern influence that the written language of the north differs comparatively little from that of the south and the authorized version of the Bible, the Statenbijbel (executed at Dordrecht 1626-35) was written in a language coloured by cer tain southern characteristics.

The history of the Netherlands is distinctly reflected in the spread of the Dutch language and its dialects. The original language of the Belgian provinces West-Flanders, East-Flanders, Antwerp, Brabant and Limburg and of French-Flanders is still characterized by a wealth of dialects as in the middle ages. The dialects of all these districts are generally grouped together under the name Flemish. In these Flemish districts the dialect is spoken by preference, although the written language is taught in the schools. By the side of it French has taken a prominent place from the time of the middle ages. In Brussels the language of the greater part of educated people is at present chiefly French. As a protest against this increasing Frenchification the Flem ish language-conflict has arisen. Before the law French and Flemish now have equal legal recognition.

The state of affairs in Holland is less complex. The name "Holland", which originally only referred to the present provinces of north and south Holland, is now also used at home and abroad to designate the whole kingdom of the Netherlands. As a con sequence of the expansion of the province of Holland in the i6th and 17th centuries, the language of this province was gradually adopted as the language of daily intercourse by all the provinces grouped round Holland. Provincial dialects are still spoken, a peculiar position being occupied by Frisian in the province of Friesland, which is separated from the Dutch dialects proper by a sharp linguistic boundary-line. The other dialects cannot be sharply differentiated. If we move eastward from the centre of culture, Amsterdam, an increasing "eastern" colour can be re marked in the dialects, as they merge imperceptibly into those of the Low German group, where, in the adjoining German dis tricts, numerous Dutch influences are found.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.-The

Middelnederlandsch Woordenboek bij E. VerBibliography.-The Middelnederlandsch Woordenboek bij E. Ver- wijs and J. Verdam (The Hague, 1885 seq.) embraces almost all the material of Middle Dutch, which has been handed down since the middle of the 13th century, and is one of the best dictionaries of mediaeval languages existing ; this standard work is complete except for part ix. Excellent is also the great Woordenboek der Neder landsche Taal (The Hague, 1882, seq.) of which is parts have been completed. Jac. van Ginneken, Handboek der Nederlandsche Taal i.—ii. (Nijmwegen, 1913, seq.) pays special attention to the dialects; J. Verdam, Uit de Geschiedenis der Nederlandsche Taal, 4th ed. by F. A. Stoett (Zutphen, 192 3) is adapted to the requirements of the general public ; M. Schonfeld, Historiese Grammatika van het Nederlands end ed. (Zutphen, 1924) is useful as an introduction to historical grammar and has a good bibliography. Of the Historische Grammatik der niederlandischen Sprache bij M. J. van der Meer (Heidelberg, 1927), the first part (Einleitung and Lautlehre) has been completed; the numerous bibliographical references have been brought up to 1927. For some years the geographical method has been employed in an increasing degree in dialect investigation. In his work De Hollandsche Expansie in de i6de en i7de eeuw en Naar weerspiegeling in de heden daagsche Nederlandsche dialecten (The Hague, 1927), G. G. Kloeke shows with the aid of a map of the Dutch speaking territory how the language spoken in the cultural centre spreads over the surround ing dialect districts. For the practical study of the Dutch language the following work may be recommended: E. Kruisinga, A grammar of modern Dutch (1924) . The best English-Dutch and Dutch-English Dictionary is: K. ten Bruggencate's Engelsch Woordenboek, loth ed. bij A. Broers (Groningen) . (G. G. K.) The oldest literary writings to be found to-day in Netherlandish or Dutch are the works of Heynrik van Veldeken, who lived near Maastricht in Limburg at the end of the i 2th century. He wrote a Life of St. Servatius, the patron saint of the town, after a Latin original, and an Eneide (Aeneid) after the French Roman d'Eneas. He also wrote love songs which, like his Eneide, were translated into German and exercised a very considerable influence upon German poetry. But his influence on Middle Dutch literature was less considerable, although it is probable that the mystical poets of the Netherlands, and in particular the poetess Hadewych, borrowed from him.

The Influence of France.

The great efflorescence of Dutch literature occurred in the middle of the 13th century in Flanders and Brabant. Most of the works written there were translations from the French. This applies in particular to the romances of chivalry. The French originals of these romances came into exist ence at different periods, but their translations into Dutch belong more or less to one period. Among others, there exist in Middle Dutch fragments of a translation of the Chanson de Roland, of a Willem van Oringen, a Renout van Montalbaen, De Lorreinen, Aiol, etc. All these are "Frankish" romances. To this section also belongs carel end Elegast. It is almost certain that there was a French original of this remarkable work, but so far it has not been discovered.

In the section of Celtic romances, there exists one, or rather a double romance, by Jacob van Maerlant, about whom more will be said in connection with the didactic poems of the bourgeoisie. This romance is the Historie van den Grale (History of the Grail) and Merlijns Boeck. It is a translation and, as regards the begin ning, a rather abbreviated and free adaptation of the Joseph d'Arimathie and the Merlin of Robert de Borron. These adapta tions date from approximately 1261. In 1326 Lodewijc van Velt hem added to this the translation of a much more extensive work called Koning Artur's Boek after Le Livre dig Roi Artus. Maer lant also adapted a romance of Torec, while books about the adventures of Lancelot, Percival and the death of Arthur have also come down to us. Under the name Roman van Lancelot we possess a vast work of compilation, in which a number of British stories have been put together, and which also contains the original Dutch romance of Moriaen. And there is the Ferguut, which tells how a peasant lad was turned by love into a perfect knight.

The most important of the eastern romances is the adaptation of Floris ende Blancefloer by Diederic van Assenede. It is the story of the love of two children who are brought up together, one a heathen prince, the other the daughter of a Christian count. Another eastern romance is that of Partenopeus en Melior, which describes the love of a young man for a mysterious beauty who proves to be the daughter of the emperor of Constantinople. Of the classical romances we may mention the Alexander of Maer lant, after a Latin model, and his Historie van Troyen after Benoit de St. More's Roman de Troie.

Religious Literature.

Religious poetry occupies a prominent place in Middle Dutch literature. There exists among other poems a Leven ons Heren (Life of our Lord), compiled from various sources, written between 1 26o and 12 7o. Various lives of saints were also narrated in verse. We have a life of St. Lutgarde by Willem van Afflighem, and fragments of several other lives of saints. Maerlant, whom we have already mentioned when speak ing of the romances of chivalry, wrote a life in verse of St. Francis of Assisi, after St. Bonaventura.

The ecstatic mystical songs of the nun Hadewych, who also wrote visions and letters, are the most important, from the aesthetic point of view, of the 13th century religious poems. The i4th century saw the decay of the romance of chivalry, while, on the other hand, religious literature acquired still greater impor tance. From that period also date a few lives of saints which, however, have no great literary value. Most of them are trans lations from the Latin, and are written in a rather clumsy style. More importance must be ascribed to the poem about Theophilus and to the beautiful legend of Beatrijs, which are poetic versions of "Exempelen" (models or examples) displaying the favours which the Virgin Mary is able to obtain for those who serve her. The really significant religious literature of the period is the mystic prose, notably that of Jan van Leeuwen, "the good cook of Groenendaal," and, even more important, that of Jan van Ruusbroec, prior of the monastery at Groenendaal, near Brussels (1294-1381). His principal work was Die Chierheit der geeste leker Bruloclit. Some of his other works are Spieghel der ewiglier Salicheit, Vingherlinc of vanden blinckenden Steen, Van den Gheestelijken Tabernacule, Van den Twaalf Beghinen. In all these works the relations between God and the soul which loves Him are described, and the ways in which one can turn to Him.

Maerlant's Significance.

There further exists an interesting and original literature of the third estate in the middle ages. Jacob van Maerlant is its first and principal representative. We have seen that he also produced romances of chivalry and religious poetry. He was a Fleming by birth, went to live first at Maerlant in the isle of Oost-Voorne, where he was a sacristan, and finally at Damme in Flanders. His special significance lies in the fact that he satisfied the craving of the new bourgeoisie for useful reading. So he wrote the Rijmbijbel, which is an adaptation of the Historia Scolastica of Petrus Comestor. With this work and with his Sente Franciscus' Leven he had entered a new field. Five lyrical poems, which were partly translated but also very probably original in parts, belong to this section of his work. He wrote didactic poetry in the same very skilful strophic arrangement. There are two dialogues between Jacob (who represents Maerlant himself) and Martijn, about society and the church, about the relations between social classes, love, God, sin and similar subjects. But there are also works on a larger scale and of more scientific content, written to instruct the bourgeoisie. His Heimelijkheid der Heimelijk heden (Secret of Secrets) is a guide for princes. Der Naturen Bloeme (The Flower of Nature) is a moralizing handbook of natural history. These works are adaptations of Latin models. His last creations were again two strophic lyrical songs, the first a complaint about bad priests, the second preaching a new crusade after the fall of St. Jean d'Acre. For us Maerlant is principally a source of information about his time, rather than an artist. Nevertheless he proved himself a real poet. His original contributions in the sphere of didactic poetry found many imi tators during the 14th century, among whom Boendale deserves special notice.

We may further mention among mediaeval poets the "Sprook spreker" (i.e., a poet who also recites poems, which are usually of a moralizing character) Willem van Hildegaersberch (d. shortly after 1408) ; and Dirc Potter van der Loo (d. 1428), who put into inartistic rhymes a vast collection of love stories with a moralizing aim. The title of the work is Der Minnen Loop.

The mediaeval bestiary is represented by Esopet, a volume of fables after a Latin original (Romulus). But of much greater importance is Van den Vos Reinaerde, one of the masterpieces of Dutch literature. It was a free translation from the French branch of the Reynard romance Le Plaid, by one Aernout, made about 125o, while a certain Willem, who tells us that he also had written a Madoc story, completed this adaptation with a piece about equal in length, which described how Reynard succeeded in escaping the gallows by a series of extremely clever, though false accusations, made at the court of king Nobel. The whole Dutch Reynard is a beautiful work, full of the most delicate popular humour and psychology. At a later period a further addition was made and this eventually became the so-called Reinaert II. The poem is much less plastic, life among the animals is less vividly imagined, and there is more moralizing.

Mediaeval Drama.

Among what remains of the drama of the middle ages, there are a number of religious plays, and a quantity of very interesting secular plays, from which the religious element however is usually not lacking. The "Abele Spelen," i.e., serious secular plays, which have come down to us, are Esmoreit, Gloriant, and Lanseloet van Denemarken. Each "Abel Spel" was followed by a farce ("Sotternie"). Six "Sotternien" are still known, dating from the i3th century. They are pleasant pictures of daily life. Of a later period is the similar Nu noch.

The mystery plays date from the 15th century. Seven such plays had been written about the seven joys of the Virgin, one of them being performed in each of seven successive years. There are still extant Die Erste Bliscap van Maria, and Die Sevenste Bliscap van Maria. There also exists Tspel van de Vroede ende van de Dwase Maegden, in which the wise and foolish virgins bear the names of different virtues and sins. This takes us far upon the way to allegory. Other plays, dating probably from a later period in the i 5th century, are the two miracle plays Van den Heylighen Sacramente van der Nyeuwervaert by Smeken, and Mariken van Nieumeghen. The second, like the Reinaert and a few of the mystical songs of the nun Hadewych and of Sister Bertke, a hermit of Utrecht, is one of the jewels of mediaeval Dutch litera ture. The later middle ages produced a considerable number of popular songs, many of which are very beautiful.

Chambers of Rhetoric.

The 16th century was, in the prov inces of the Netherlands, the century of the "Rederijkers," a name which is a popular rendering of rhetoricians, or members of the Chambers of Rhetoric. These Chambers were of much more ancient date, and their curious literature goes back to about 1400. They were societies of burghers who wished to practise literature by recitations, theatrical performances, and even by poetic corn position. In this domain also the southern Netherlands gave the lead. In the north, the oldest Chamber, "Het Bloemken Jesse" of Middelburg, dates from 143o. A highly placed person usually acted as patron. The real leader of the activities was the "factor," who often wrote the plays himself and produced them. These Cham bers really had a great significance in social history. If they diffused notions about poetry and its technique among the masse, they were also instrumental in spreading new ideas of every kind. They did not, however, produce anything of real artistic value. In 1548 Matthijs de Casteleyn published his Const van Rhetoriken. It was an ars poetica for rhetoricians, and placed the emphasis on the technique of poetry. The importance attached by the Cham bers of Rhetoric to difficult forms and complicated rhyme arrange ments gradually increased. Still real sentiment is expressed in three volumes of Re f ereynen by the Antwerp schoolmistress, Anna Bijns, who proved herself a very militant servant of the old church in the fight against the "damnable Lutheran doctrines." Most of the extant works by rhetoricians are allegorical plays, so-called moralities or "Spelen van Sinnen." The morality Elckerlyc, written at the end of the 15th century, is unmistakably related to the English Everyman. It has not been decisively estab lished which of the two is of earlier date. The mediaeval farce also persisted : by the rhetoricians it was usually called "Esbatte ment." There is a collection of 16th century plays which form the archives of the former Chamber of Rhetoric of Haarlem called Trou moet blijcken. This collection contains several such "Esbatte ments." The principal poet of this genre is Cornelius Everaert of Bruges (1485-1556). To "Esbattement" as well as to allegory he made important and fine contributions.

The great moments in the life of the rhetoricians were the "landjuweelen," or poetic and dramatic competitions between dif ferent Chambers. The name of "land-jewels" comes from the prizes that were given.

The Early Renaissance.

The effect of the Renaissance was noticeable. In this connection it is unnecessary to say much about the world-famous Desiderius Erasmus, of Rotterdam, because he wrote exclusively in Latin. A few quite interesting writers who belonged to the early Renaissance used the national language: the Brabander Jan van der Noot, and Carel van Mander, who also wrote an important book on painting (Het Schilderboeck). There was also Jan van Hout, secretary to the town of Leyden. These men differ altogether from the rhetoricians who adorned their style with mythological names. They have communed with the pure spirit of the Renaissance through the poets of the French Plciade.

Greater, however, was the effect of the Reformation, a move ment which touched and agitated the whole of the population. We have mentioned already a poetess who opposed the movement— Anna Bijns. The other side is amply represented in the political and religious struggle against Spain by the so-called "Geuzen liedjes," which tried to spur people on to action. Marnix van St. Aldegonde (1538-98) wrote the Biencorf der Heiligher Roomscher Kercke, perhaps the bitterest satire ever written against the Catho lic Church, which called forth a number of replies. The poet D. V. Coornhert (1522-9o) occupied a peculiar neutral position between the warring factions, which duly persecuted him each in its turn. His principal work is the Zedenkunst, dat is Wellevenskunst.

Meanwhile in Amsterdam the Chamber of Rhetoric "De Eglan tier" was flourishing as a centre of literary culture. Its motto was "In lief de bloeyende" (i.e., flourishing in love) . During the later part of the 16th century and the beginning of the 17th one of the principal members of this Chamber was the humanist Hendrik Laurenszoon Spieghel (1549-1612), whose principal work was the Hertspieghel, a rather elaborately composed poem, which ex pounded a doctrine not unlike that of Coornhert's. Another important member was Roemer Visscher, who wrote familiar and comical little rhymes (Brabbeling), and also wrote little mottoes in prose to accompany printed pictures ("Sinnepoppen") .

The Golden Century.

The Chamber "De Eglantier" also made great efforts to refine the national language, to polish it, and to free it from French bastard-words. In 1584 it published a Twee spraack van de Nederduytsche letterkunst, a Renaissance gram mar with an important preface by Coornhert. A factor of the greatest significance in relation to the civilization and culture of the Netherlands was the emigration of Calvinists from the south ern Netherlands.

The principal poets and prose writers of the Golden Century are Jacob Cats (1577-166o) ; Pieter Corneliszoon Hooft (1581 1647) ; Gerbrand Adriaanszoon Bredero (1585-1618) ; Joost van den Vondel (1587-1679) and Constantijn Huygens (1S96-1687).

Jacob Cats, born at Brouwershaven, studied at Leyden and at Orleans. He became "advocate" of the town of Middelburg (1603), made a fortune by reclaiming land from the sea, suc cessively occupied the position of pensionary of Middelburg (1621) and of Dordrecht (1623) . From 1636 to 165o he was pensionary of Holland, after which he retired to his country house "Zorgh-vlied" near The Hague. His work is wordy but easy to understand, and during the whole of the 17th and 18th centuries it was read by the people and had its place beside the Bible. It is a treasurehouse of moral precepts and practical worldly wisdom. His principal works are : Houwelijck (1625) ; Spieghel van den olden ende nieuwen Tijdt (1632) ; Trou-Ringh (163 7) ; and Ouderdom, Buytenleven en Hof gedachten op Zorgh-vliet (1656) . This work, the title of which means "Old Age, Country Life and Courtly Thoughts at Zorgh-vlied" (the poet's country house), is autobiographical. Cats was only a mediocre poet, but culturally his significance has been immense. He is the representative of the ideas of the Calvinist masses.

Constantijn Huygens was born at The Hague. In 1616 and 1617 he studied law at Leyden, and travelled several times as secretary of embassy (he made three journeys to England). In 1625 he became secretary to the Stadholder Frederic Henry, after wards to Prince William II., and finally to Prince William III. He considered his professional work to be the principal part of his existence, and his poems were "flowers in his cornfield." He has little fantasy and in his work mainly depicted himself and his surroundings. His principal works in Dutch—for he also wrote in Latin—are V oorhout (1621), a description of the well-known promenade at The Hague; Costelick Mal (1622), a satire on eccentric fashions; Dagwerck (1639), a description of the manner in which he spends his day; Oogentroost, a poem in which he tried to console his blind friend Lucretia van Trello by explaining how nearly all people go through life blinded by their passions ; Hof wijck (1653), a description of his little country home; Zeestraat (1666), which describes the road made after his plan between The Hague and Scheveningen. There is also a play called Tri jnt je Cornelis Dochter, and an autobiography of his later years, Cluys werck (168o), which was only published in the 19th century.

The Influence of Amsterdam.

We now pass to Amsterdam. There, at the beginning of the 17th century, two Chambers of Rhetoric were flourishing, "De Eglantier" already mentioned and " 't Wit Lavendel," which was the "Braband" Chamber, where refugees from the southern Netherlands came together. Differ ences of opinion made themselves felt in the "Eglantier." Many of the best members, in whose view the practice of "rhetoric" did not mainly consist in pleasant gatherings, seceded in 1617. Among their number were Hooft and Bredero. Under the direction of Dr. Samuel Coster, a medical man who also wrote, they founded the "Duytsche Academie," which aimed at giving instruction ; after some time, however, the activities of the new chamber limited themselves to the production of plays. In 1635 the old "Eglantier" amalgamated with the seceders and the result was the foundation of the "Amsterdamsche Schouwburg" (Amsterdam theatre) in 1637.

One of the more talented writers in this circle was G. A. Bredero, who was an exception among the great authors of his day, in that he had received no classical education. His voluminous lyrical poetry has been collected in his Boertigh, Amoureus en Aendachtigh Groot Liedboeck. The first part of the book contains comical poems, little sketches of popular life, representing in the sphere of literature those things which in painting characterized the work of Jan Steen, Brouwer and Ostade. The amorous poems of the volume are in the vein fashionable at the time. As a dramatic author Bredero wrote in the first place romantic plays, the subject matter of which came from Spanish romances of chivalry. The comical interludes in these plays, full of popular realism, showed a talent for comedy which reached its full height in his farces Klucht van de Koe (1612) ; Klucht van Symen ender Soelighyd (1612-13) ; Klucht van den Molenaer (1613) ; and also in his two comedies : Het Moortje (1616) and De Spaansche Brabander (1617). The first was based on the Eunuch of Terence, the second was after Lazarillo de Tormez. The local colour in both plays was entirely derived from Amsterdam.

Another lyric poet and playwright whose gifts were more modest, but who was decidedly related to Bredero, was Jan Starter (I born in England, who was a member of the "Eglan tier" at the same time as Bredero. Afterwards he became a book seller and founded a Chamber of Rhetorique at Leeuwarden. His poetry has been collected in the volume De Friesche Lustho f (1621).

Pieter Hooft is the most typical representative of the Renais sance in the literature of the Netherlands. His art is personal and refined. He came from an Amsterdam merchant family, was des tined for commerce, and was sent on a commercial journey to Italy (1598-1601). The love poems which he wrote after his return, and the pastoral play Granida (1605) show the influence of the Italian Renaissance. In i6o6 he was allowed to study law at Leyden. When his studies were finished he was appointed drost of Muiden. In this function he lived in the famous Muiderslot or castle of Muiden. Inspired by the place in which he was living and also strongly influenced by the tragedies of Seneca, he wrote in 1613 Geeraerd van Velsen and in 1626 Baeto. In both plays he has expressed his political ideas in a very anachronistic manner. He also adapted Plautus's Aulularia into a comedy of Amsterdam called W arenar (1617) . Particularly after 1627 his home became the centre of artistic and intellectual life, formed by the "Muider kring" (circle of Muiden). During the last 20 years of his life, he devoted himself almost exclusively to historical prose. In 1626 he wrote Henrik de Grote; in 1628-47, Nederlandsche Historien, which he left unfinished. The artistic prose of these writings, strongly influenced by Latin, exercised a great influence on the literary prose style of the 17th century.

The Genius of Vondel.

Joost van den Vondel is the greatest poet of the Golden Century in Holland. He was born in Cologne of parents who came from Antwerp, whence they had fled as Ana baptist refugees. When Joost was still very young his parents migrated to Amsterdam. There he had a hose shop in the War moesstraat, but his wife Maaiken de Wolf entirely managed the business and allowed her husband to give all his time to study and to art. He was a real product of the Renaissance, full of venera tion for the ancients whom he tried to imitate, particularly in his tragedies.

Vondel's work is voluminous. There are in the first place the satirical poems occasioned by the religious and political struggles between Arminians and Gomarists : Geuzenvesper, which was writ ten against the doctrine of predestination; Rommelpot van 't Hanekot; Otter in 't Bolwerk. His tragedy Palamedes (1625) represents the struggle between Prince Maurice and Oldenbarne velt in an allegorical form and belongs to his satirical work. There are further Roskam, which criticizes the abuses of the govern ment of the Regents, and Harpoen, which compares the good and the bad minister. We may mention, among his songs celebrating the national greatness of the Dutch republic, the glory of the House of Orange, and of Amsterdam, Lof der Zeevaert (1622); Geboortklock van Willem van Nassau (1625) ; Inwijding van het Stadhuis (16S5). He showed the interest which he took in im portant events abroad in Maeghdeburghs Li jcko ff er (1631) , Oh) f tack van Gustaaf Adolf (1632). After he had become a Catholic he wrote three long poems in defence of his faith: Altaerge heimenissen (1645) ; Bespiegelingen van Godt en Godsdienst (1662) ; Heerlijckheit der kercke (1663). But the principal work of Vondel consisted of 24 original dramas. The first was Pascha of de Uyttocht der Kinderen Israels uit Egypte. Among his other dramas are Gysbreght van Aemstel (1637); Maeghden (1639), a dramatic version of an episode of the life of St. Ursula; Joseph in Dothan (164o) ; Maria Stuart (1646) ; Leeuwendalers (1647), a play written on the occasion of the Peace of Munster. His master piece was Lucifer (1654), describing the revolt of the angels against God. Jeplitlia (1659) and Adam in Ballingschap (1664) are other plays of his.

Three religious poets from the great period of the 17th century deserve separate notice. The first is Johannes Stalpaert van der Wielen, parish priest at Delft (15 whose Life of St. Agnes and Geesteli jcke Lo f sangen, imbued with a true mediaeval spirit, are his best known works. Jacobus Reefsen of Revius (I 586-1658), was a Protestant minister of Deventer (Over Yselsche Sangen en Dichten, 163o), and D. R. Camphuysen (I586-1627) wrote Stichtelijcke Rijmen.

The Late 17th Century.

Later in the 17th century comes Jan Vos whose rhetorical pieces Aran en Titus (1641) and Medea (1666), were produced with elaborate stage machinery, which made quite a sensation. Geraert Brandt (1626-85) was a prose author who wrote Historie der Reformatie, Leven van Adr. de Ruyter, Leven van P. C. Hooft, Leven van Vondel. Heiman Dul laert (1636-84) was a painter, pupil of Rembrandt, who wrote a few poems full of true sentiment which were among the best of his time.

The last generation of the 17th century is represented by the following writers: Johannes Antonides van der Goes was an imitator of Vondel. His principal work was De Ystroom. His language has something of the ease and grace of Vondel's but rather lacks simplicity. Jan Luiken (1649–i 712), a world famous etcher and engraver, ranks as a poet near to Hooft and Vondel. The work of his youth was De Duitse Lier, a volume of love and nature poems. When he was 26 he became converted to a mystic and ascetic conception of life. Henceforth he only wrote pious verses, of which the best is the first, Jesus en de Ziel. Thomas Asselyn and Pieter Bernagie wrote comedies. The first is known mainly for his play Jan Klaesz of de gewaende Dienstmaegd, in which he makes fun of the Quakers.

The decadence which had already set in by the end of the 17th century became accentuated in the i8th. The so-called "Pruiken tijd" or period of wigs was a time of great wealth, when people were seized with a mania for collecting, and the art of poetry was practised in an amateurish way. Written in a form that was bound by the strictest rules, it was nothing but servile imitation of French models. The best known among the societies where that kind of poetry was practised, the "Nil volentibus arduum," was estab lished at Amsterdam in 1669. One of its leading members was Andries Pels, who published in 1677 an ars poetica.

Gallican Dramatists.

The three principal authors of the first half of the i8th century are Pieter Langendijk (1683-1756), known to our own day as an author of comedies which are still performed, the moralist Justus van Effen (1684-1735), and the peasant poet Huibert Poot. The principal works of Langendijk were : Het W ederzi jds Huwelijks Bedrog+ 0712-14); Krelis Louwen of Alexander de Groote op het Poeetemaal (1715), and De W iskenstenaars of 't Gevluchte Ju ff ert je (1715) . He is an imitator of Moliere, and in the polish of his smooth alexandrines shows himself a real man of the i8th century. His comedy of manners De Spiegel der Vaderlandsche Kooplieden, in which he opposes old fashioned solidity to newfangled lightheartedness, remained unfinished. Justus van Effen was mainly the author of moralizing works written in French. He followed the example of the English reviews, The Tatler and The Spectator, and applied their methods also when later in life (1731-35) he published De Hollandsche Spectator. Between 1741 and 1800 at least 3o weekly papers of the same kind appeared. The best known are De Denker and De Grijzaard. These Spectatoriale vertoogen had a great influence on the Dutch "Verlichting." Poot was a peasant with much poetical talent, but was unhappily too much under the influence of a dead classicism.

Some further typical representatives of the period are : Hoog vliet, author of Abraham de Aartsvader; Feitama, translator of the Telemaque of Fenelon and of the Henriade of Voltaire; Huy decoper, a philologist and author of tragedies in the style of the French classics. The two Friesian noblemen, Willem and Onr. Zwier van Haren, have a certain imaginative originality, and are remarkable for the choice of more national subjects for their poetry.

English Influence on the Novel.

In the last quarter of the i8th century started the movement of "Verlichting." Classicism, which had gradually become a rigid and soulless form, was the special butt of the critics. The "enlightened" Betje Wolff-Bekker (1738-1804) and her friend Aagje Deken (1741-1804), who started by being more piously inclined, joined forces after they had for some time been publishing independently. Their collab oration produced some novels in letter form. Of these the first two Sara Burgerhart (1782) and Willem Leevend (1784-85), are the more important. In construction and in form they belong entirely to the school of Richardson. They are remarkable for their easy style and facility of expression. Rhijnvis Feith 1824) is an entirely different type, a sentimentalist strongly in fluenced by Young, d'Arnaud, and Klopstock. He wrote a few sentimental novels, Julia (1783) and Ferdinand en Constantia (1785). Later in life he wrote didactic poems (e.g., De Ouderdom 1803) and many songs which are still used as church hymns. He also had a certain significance as a writer on aesthetics, but in that sphere he was less important than Hieronymus van Alphen (1746 1803 ), who translated Riedel's Theory of Fine Arts and provided it with an important introduction. He is now better known as the author of children's poems. Another poet, also very patriotic, was Jacobus Bellamy (1757-86). His style was rather bombastic.

Bilderdi jk.—Willem Bilderdijk (1756-1831) is a great figure, who exercised considerable influence upon the spiritual life of Holland. He was an Orangist, an opponent of the party of the Patriots. In 1795 he refused to take the oath of allegiance to the Government of the Batavian republic which had been established by the French, and received the unusually severe penalty of exile. He roamed about Hamburg and London, where he fell in love with Katerina Wilhelmina Schwerckhardt, who later became his second wife. When Louis Napoleon became king of Holland, Bilderdijk was recalled to Holland and treated with much consideration. After the restoration, King William I. gave him a pension. He was not appointed a professor at Leyden as he had hoped to be, but established himself in that town as a private tutor and had a number of very able students who attended his courses in national history, venerated him as a prophet, and adopted a considerable part of his political and religious views. The move ment which aimed at propagating these religious ideas was called the "Revell." Bilderdijk wrote ballads and longer narrative poems such as Elius and Urzijn en V alenti jn. The epic De Ondergang der Eerste Wereld (181o), which he left unfinished, contains beautiful pas sages. The immense bulk of his lyric poetry contains some ex pressive poems, especially among his love songs, and others full of very deeply felt religious emotion, such as Gebed (1796) and Boetzang (1826). Among the longer poems the Ode Van Napo leon (18°6) and A f scheid (I 81o) are celebrated. His Geschiedenis des Vaderlands contains part of an autobiography.

Johannes Kinker (1746-1845) was also a critic, a philosopher and a philologist. He criticized the insignificance of his conven tional and sentimental contemporaries. Among the numerous but insignificant writers of the French period mention may be made of Ac'riaan Loosjes, whose Maurits Lijnslager is a forerunner of the historical novel, and Frederik Helmers (1767-1813) who pub lished his bombastic but deeply patriotic poem De Hollandsch Natie in 1812 during the French domination.

The 19th Century.

The first part of the 19th century was less distinguished even than the revolutionary period. It was a time of rhetorical self-complacency. The orator Van der Palm ( I 763-1841), whose Geschied-en-Redekunstig Gedenkschri f t van Nederlands Herstelling (1816) is the best known work, re-es tablished formalism after the laxity of the revolutionary period. The typical representative in Holland of familiar fireside poetry was Hendrik Tollens (178o-1856). During that period we may notice Bilderdijk's ardent admirer and disciple Isaac da Costa (1789-186o). Da Costa's main work, directed against Liberal ism, was Bezwaren tegen den Geest der Eeuw (1823). Among his poetic works the best known are his Tijdzangen, which Da Costa himself called his political poetry. His biblical poem Hagar (1848) had a symbolical meaning : Islam will one day bend the knee be fore Christ. In 1859 he wrote a historical poem De Slag bij Nieuwpoort.

Antoni Christiaan Winand Staring (1747-184o), an excellent poet who stood almost entirely by himself, was a gentleman farmer of Gelderland. Apart from many lyric poems and some epigrams ("sneldichten") , he wrote a few fine stories in verse: De Twee Bultenaars, the cycle of Jaromir, Marco, De Hoo f dige Boer, De Leerling van Pankrates, De Verjongingskuur.

Jacob Geel (1789-1862), excellent prose writer, became li brarian of Leyden university in 1822, and afterwards a professor. His main work consists of a series of treatises and essays, of which the eight principal ones have been brought together in one volume, Onderzoek en Phantasie. One of them, Gesprek op den Drachen f els (1835), attempts a just appreciation of romanticism, which had made its way into Holland about that period. Jacob van Lennep (1802-68) and Jan Frederik Oltmans (1806-54) are gifted followers of Scott, but their subject matter was national. Van Lennep wrote poetic stories, a few plays, but mainly histori cal novels and short stories which gave him considerable popu larity. He started with mediaeval stories: De Pleegzoon, De Roos van Dekama, Onze Voorouders. His later novels Ferdinand Huyck and Elizabeth Musch, written under the influence of De Gids (about which more presently) describe the period of the Dutch republic. Van Lennep is easy and entertaining, but super ficial. Under the influence of French naturalism, he also wrote a contemporary novel called Klaasje Zevenster. Under the pseu donym J. van den Hage, Oltmans wrote two novels : Het Slot Loevestein and De Schaapherder.

National

of the romantic movement in Holland was the periodical De Gids. The critic and author Aernout Drost, who died young, started a review in 1836, called De Muzen, which had only a short existence. Everardus Johannes Potgieter followed him in 1837 with De Gids, in which he tried to strengthen the national consciousness of his compatriots. He was haunted by the ideal of national strength, represented by the grandeur of the 17th century. From 1837 to 1865 he directed De Gids, contributing to it a number of important criticisms and many sketches, the most characteristic of which is Jan, Jannet je, en hun jongste Kind (1842), where he contrasts the past and present of Holland. In Het Rijksmuseum (1844) he extolled the Holland of the 17th century. Potgieter's style is difficult and full of learned allusions. This also applies to his poetry, especially to his Zangen des Tijds and to his Nalatenschap van den Landjon ker. Before he died Potgieter had come to despair of the success of his enterprise, and among the younger men he could discover no one whom he judged able to take over his task. The learned historian (later archivist) Reinier Bakhuizen van den Brink (1810-65), mainly known through his studies of the 17th cen tury, published in De Gids, was a kindred spirit.

In the Dutch literature of that period a very peculiar place is occupied by Nicolaas Beets (1814-1903) . During his student days he was an enthusiastic admirer of the English and French romantics. Under the influence more particularly of Byron, he wrote four stories in verse. But he owes his fame entirely to Cam era Obscura, a book which has become a classic. It consists of a number of sketches which give a delicately humorous picture of the middle-class society of his day. Beets also wrote many poems, most of which are in the manner of Tollens.

Pieter Hasebroeck (1812-96) was, like Beets, a Protestant minister. His volume Waarheid en Droomen, published under the pseudonym of Jonathan, somewhat resembles the Camera Ob scura. A similar resemblance appears in the sketches of student life by Johannes Kneppelhout, who wrote under the pseudonym Klikspaan (1814-85) . Another important figure in the romantic movement is Anna Louise Geertruida Bosboom-Toussaint 86), who, like Beets, began to write under the influence of the English romantics (Almagro, De Graaf van Devonshire). The criticism of De Gids made her choose national subjects. She wrote in praise of the heroes of Protestantism during the 8o years war against Spain. Her best known works are : Het Huis Lauer nesse (184o), the cycle about Leicester in ten volumes 55) , and De Del f tsche Wonderdokter. Like Van Lennep she de serted the historical novel during her later period and wrote a novel in the form of a diary entitled Majoor Frans There is also a Catholic romantic, Josephus Albertus Alber dingk Thym (182o-89). Like Potgieter he loved the Amsterdam of the I7th century, but his description of that period is mainly restricted to Catholic circles. The modernist Protestant minister Petrus Augustus de Genestet (1829--61) was a popular poet and also wrote a series of Leekedichtjes (lay poems) about the re ligious struggle between the orthodox and the modernists.

Conrad Busken Huet (1826-86), of French descent, was mainly important as a critic, and adopted the method of Sainte-Beuve. From 1862 to 1865 he contributed a regular series of critical arti cles called Kroniek en Kritiek to De Gids. He worked as a journalist in the Dutch East Indies, and spent the last part of his life in Paris.

Eduard Douwes Dekker (182o-87) was a forerunner of the movement of 1880. Under the pseudonym of Multatuli, he wrote his Max Havelaar, a glowing protest against the treatment of the Javanese by the Dutch authorities. Dekker had been an official in India. The book created an immense sensation. In 1861 there followed the Minnebrieven (love letters). This book is extremely loose in form. Between 1862 and 1877 he published seven vol umes of Ideeen, which contain his unfinished novel Woutertje Pieterse. Douwes Dekker was a neurotic who lacked equilibrium, but he had real flashes of genius.

In the southern Netherlands, where in the course of the several successive foreign dominations popular education had been stag nant, a new movement arose after 183o, the Flemish movement, of which the novelist Hendrik Conscience (1812-83) was for some time the best known literary representative. Conscience celebrated the grandeur of the past of Flanders. His best known novels are : De Leeuw van Vlaanderen, Jacob van Artevelde, De Loteling. Among the poets of the movement the foremost is Guido Gezelle (183o-99), one of the very greatest poets in the Dutch language.

The Renaissance of the '80s.—In the northern Netherlands an important renaissance of literature took place about 1885. It is usually considered to have started in Oct. 1885 with the publi cation of the first number of the review De Nieuwe Gids. The forerunners of this movement were Dekker, the novelist and poet Marcellus Emants and the delicate lyric poet Jacques Perk (1859-81). The Nieuwe Gids differs from De Gids in that it pur sues an exclusively aesthetic ideal. The leaders of the movement were the poets Willem Kloos (1859-1938), Albert Verwey (1865 ' 93 7) and Lodewijk van Deyssel, the pseudonym of Karel Al berdingk Thym (b. 1864) . Kloos sings the beauty that pleases the senses. Verwey passed from impressionist to symbolical verse. He also did good work in literary history (among other works he wrote a book about Potgieter). Van Deyssel is the violent and lyrical critic of the movement. Frederik van Eeden (186o-193 2 ), dramatist, poet and prose writer, occupied a special place in the movement. His best work in prose is De Kleine Johannes, the story of the soul of a child. His Van de koele Meren des Doods is an important pathological novel. Van Eeden also took part in an experiment at communistic life which proved a failure. His plays are largely the expression of his social feelings and opinions. The poetess, Helene Swarth (b. 1859) stands very near to the movement with her lyrical works written in particularly delicate language full of resonance. Herman Gorter (1864-1927) has ac quired a foremost position in Dutch poetry by his poem Mei. Among the men of the '8os (De Tachtiger) we must also place Jacobus van Looy a writer of beautiful prose (Prow, Gekken, Feesten, Jaapje, Jaap, the last two of which are autobiographical) . The great novelist Louis Couperus (1863 1923) describes the life of The Hague (Eline Vere, De Boeken der Kleine Zielen) and makes splendid imaginative reconstruc tions of antiquity (De Berg van Licht, Antiek Toerisme, Hera kles, De Komedianten, Iskander) . The movement of the '8os was mainly individualistic. Immediately afterwards came a group of authors whose feelings were more social. The dramatist and writer of sketches, Herman Heyermans (1864-1924), wrote social dramas which are among the greater triumphs of the Dutch stage (Ghetto, Het Zevende Gebod, Op Hoop van Zegen, Ora et labora, Allerzielen, De Opgaande Zon, Schakels, etc.). The novelist Israel Querido (b. 1874) is one of the greatest Dutch naturalists (Levensgang, Menschenwee and the cycle De Jordaen in four volumes). Herman Robbers wrote among other novels De Bruid stijd van Annie de Boogh and De Roman van een Gezin. To the same movement also belong Henriette Roland Holst (b. 1869), an emotional poet who professes extreme revolutionary doctrines, and the popular poet Adam van Scheltema, a Socialist.

Recent Writers.—This generation has again been followed by an entirely new one, poets and prose writers, whose mottoes and tendencies differ considerably from one another. They are too near us to be grouped and classified, and it must suffice to men tion a few names of those whose work is generally recognized as excellent. Peter Cornelis Boutens first wrote in an obscure fashion but gradually obtained a mastery of his poetic form and became able to express himself in strongly rhythmic verse. Jan Hendrik Leopold (1865-1925) wrote sensitive poems, Carel and Margo Scharten-Antink are novelists (Een Huis vol Menschen, De Vreemde Heerschers, 't Geluk Hangt als een Druiventros). Other women novelists are : Augusta de Wit (Orpheus in de Dessa), Ina Boudier Bakker, Top Naeff, Carry van Bruggen and Jo van Am mers-Kuller. There is a young poetic school about which it is still difficult to pronounce a definite opinion. Martinus Nyhoff and van Schagen are talented representatives of this school. Contemporary Flanders represents a strong element of feeling and also a strik ing power in modern Dutch literature. There are the prose writers Stijn Streuvels (pseudonym of Frank Lateur) and Felix Timmer mans, and the classicist and imaginative poet, Karel van den Woestijne. (J. WAL.) BIBLIOGRAPHY.-W. J. A. Jonckbloet, Geschiedenis der Nederlandsche Letterkunde (4th ed., 1889-92) ; J. ten Brink, Gescheidenis der Neder landsche Letterkunde (1897), illustrated with facsimiles, title pages, etc.; J. A. Worp, Geschiedenis van het Drama en van het tooneel in Nederland (1904-07) ; G. Kalff,-Geschiedenis der Nederlandsche Letter kunde (7 vols., 1906-12) ; J. to Winkel, De ontwikkelingsgang der Nederlandsche Letterkunde (Haarlem, 2nd ed., 7 vols., 1922-27) ; J. Prinsen, Geillustreede Nederlandsche Letterkunde (1924) ; A. J. Barnouw, V ondel (1926) .

Interesting observations on the development of Dutch literature during the middle and later xixth century will be found in Willem Kloos, Veertien Jaar Literatuur-Geschiedenis (2 vols., 1880-96), and in L. van Deyssel, Verzamelde Opstelen (4 vols., 1890-97), and in the series of monographs and bibliographies by J. ten Brink, Geschiedenis der Noord-Nederlandsche Letteren in de XIXe Eeuw (Rotterdam, new ed. 1902, etc.) .