Edinburgh

EDINBURGH (ed'in-bru), city and royal burgh, capital of Scotland, county town of Midlothian or Edinburghshire, south of the Firth of Forth, 393 m. by rail N.N.W. of London. The old Royal Observatory on Calton Hill stands in 55° 5 7' 23" N. and io' 46" W. Edinburgh occupies a group of hills and valleys. In the centre is a bold rock, crowned by the castle, between which and the new town lies a ravine that once contained the Nor' Loch, but is now covered with the gardens of Princes Street. To the east rises Calton Hill (355 ft.) with the old prison and the Calton cemetery. On the south-east, beyond the Canongate limits, stands the hill of Arthur's Seat (822 ft.). Towards the north the site of the city slopes gently to the Firth of Forth and includes the port of Leith; while to the south, Liberton Hill, Blackford Hill, Braid Hills and Craiglockhart Hills roughly mark the city bounds, as Corstorphine Hill and the Water of Leith do the western limits. Its situation, general plan and literary associations gave Edin burgh the name of "the modern Athens"; but it has a homelier nickname of "Auld Reekie," from the cloud of smoke (reek) over the low-lying quarters.

Chief Buildings.—In the castle, the oldest building is St. Margaret's chapel, believed to be the chapel where Queen Mar garet, wife of Malcolm Canmore, worshipped, and belonging at latest to the reign of her youngest son, David I. (1124-1153) Near it the parliament and banqueting hall contains a fine col lection of Scottish armour, weapons and regimental colours. The heraldic bearings of royal and other figures distinguished in na tional history are emblazoned in the windows. Other buildings in the Palace Yard include the apartments occupied by the regent, Mary of Guise, and her daughter Mary, queen of Scots, and the room in which James VI. was born. Here also are deposited the Scottish regalia ("The Honours of Scotland"), with the sword of state presented to James IV. by Pope Julius II., and the jewels restored to Scotland on the death (1807) of Cardinal York, the last of the Stuarts. The remains of King David's tower, the ancient keep, were hidden by the Half Moon battery, but were revealed in 1912. In the armoury is a collection of arms of vari ous dates ; and on the Argyll battery stands a huge piece of ancient artillery, called Mons Meg, of which repeated mention is made in Scottish history. The large arsenal on the west side of the rock is modern; but the castle garrison was withdrawn in 1923. A war memorial, a shrine and gallery of honour, was unveiled in Crown Court in 1927.

Holyrood palace was originally an abbey of canons regular of the rule of St. Augustine, founded by David I. in 1128, and the ruined nave of the abbey church still shows parts of the original structure. Connected with this is a part of the royal palace erected by James IV. and James V., including the apartments occupied by Queen Mary, the scene of the murder of Rizzio in 1566. The abbey was sacked and burnt by the English under the earl of Hert ford 1544, and again in 1547. Recent excavation has revealed much of the early foundations. In a map of 1544 the present north-west tower of the palace is shown standing apart, and joined to the abbey by a cloister. Beyond this was an irregular group of buildings replaced later by additions more in accordance with a royal residence. The whole of this latter structure was destroyed by fire in 165o while in occupation by the soldiers of Cromwell; and the more modern parts were begun during the Pro tectorate, and completed in the reign of Charles II. by Robert Milne, after the designs of Sir William Bruce of Kinross. They include the picture gallery, with Io6 mythical portraits of Scottish kings, and a triptych (c. 1484) containing portraits of James III. and his queen, believed to have formed the altar-piece of the col legiate church of the Holy Trinity, founded by the widowed queen of James II. in 1462, demolished in 1848, and afterwards rebuilt, stone for stone, in Jeffrey Street. The picture gallery is associated with the festive scenes that occurred during the short residence of Prince Charles in 1 7 45 ; and in it the election of representative peers for Scotland takes place. Escaping from France at the revo lution of 1789, the Comte d'Artois, afterwards Charles X. of France, had apartments granted for the use of himself and his suite, who continued to reside in the palace till August 1799. When driven from the French throne by the revolution of 1830, Charles once more found a home in the palace. George IV. was received there in 1822, and Queen Victoria and the prince consort occupied the palace on several occasions; in 1903 Edward VII., during residence at Dalkeith Palace, held his court within its walls; and King George V. and Queen Mary stayed there in 1927. The state apartments were redecorated under the queen's guidance. A fountain, after the original design of that in the quadrangle of Linlithgow Palace, was erected in front of the entrance by the prince consort. Iron gates enclosing the forecourt, and a statue of Edward VII., form the national memorial to that king. The royal vault in the Chapel Royal, which was dilapidated, has been put in order; Clockmill House and grounds have been added to the area of the parade ground, and the abbey precincts generally and the approaches to the King's Park have been improved. With the abolition of imprisonment for debt in 1881 the old privileges of sanctuary came to an end.

Parliament House, begun in 1632 and completed in 1640, in which the later assemblies of the Scottish estates took place until the dissolution of the parliament by the Act of Union of 1707, has since been the meeting-place of the supreme courts of law. The great hall, with its fine open-timbered oak roof, is adorned with a splendid stained-glass window and several statues, including one by Louis Francois Roubiliac of Duncan Forbes of Culloden, lord president of the court of session (1685-1747), and now forms the ante-room for lawyers and their clients. The surrounding buildings, including the court-rooms and the Advocates' and the Signet libraries, are modern. The Advocates' library is the finest in Scotland. It was founded in 1682 and presented to the nation by the faculty of advocates in 1924, endowed by Sir A. Grant with £ i oo,000 for maintenance. It is one of the five entitled by the Copyright Act to receive a copy of every work published in Great Britain.

The General Register House for Scotland, begun in 1774 from designs by Robert Adam, stands at the east end of Princes Street. It contains, in addition to the ancient national records, accommo dation in fireproof chambers for all Scottish title-deeds, entails, contracts and mortgages, and for general statistics, including those of births, deaths and marriages.

The Royal Institution, in the Doric style, surmounted by a colossal stone statue of Queen Victoria by Sir John Steell, form erly accommodated the Board of Trustees for Manufactures and the Board of Fishery, the school of art, the Royal Society of Edinburgh (founded in 1783) and the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland (founded in 1780). In 1910 it was renamed and appro priated to the uses of the Royal Scottish Academy of Painting, Sculpture and Architecture, instituted in 1826, and incorporated by royal charter in 1838, on the model of the Royal Academy in London. It is situated on the Mound close to the National Gallery (185o). These collections are especially rich in Raeburn's works and include also Alexander Nasmyth's portrait of Robert Burns and Gainsborough's "The Hon. Mrs. Graham." The National Portrait Gallery and Antiquarian Museum are housed in Queen Street. St. Giles' cathedral, restored (1879-83) by the liberality of Dr. William Chambers, the publisher, has many historical and literary associations. The regent Moray, the marquess of Mont rose, and Napier of Merchiston were buried within its walls and are commemorated by monuments, and among the memorial tablets is one to R. L. Stevenson. The choir (restored in 1873 by public subscription) is a fine example of 15th-century architecture, and the Gothic crown surmounting the central tower is a feature in many views of the city. Just outside the church in Parliament Square, the supposed grave of John Knox is indicated by a stone set in the pavement bearing his initials, and in the pavement to the west a heart indicates the site of the old Tolbooth, which figures prominently in Scott's Heart of Midlothian. The original Tol booth was completed in I Sol, but a new one took its place in 1563-1564. At first occupied by the parliament and courts of justice, it served later as a prison, and was removed in 1817. Other churches having historical associations are the two Grey friars' churches, which occupy the two halves of one building; Tron church, the scene of midnight hilarity at the new year ; St. Cuthbert's church ; St. Andrew's church in George Street, whence set out, on a memorable day in 1843, that long procession of min isters and elders to Tanfield Hall which ended in the founding of the Free Church; St. George's church in Charlotte Square, a good example of the work of Robert Adam. The United Free Church claims no buildings of much historic interest, but St. George's Free has many associations. The finest building belonging to the Scottish Episcopal Church is St. Mary's cathedral (1879). The mansion of East Coates (17th cent.), stands in the close, and is occupied by functionaries of the cathedral. The Catholic Apos tolic church at the foot of Broughton Street has a set of mural paintings by Mrs. Traquair. The Central Hall at Tollcross testi fies to Methodist energy. John Knox's house at the east end of High Street is kept in repair, and contains articles of furniture that belonged to the reformer. The Canongate Tolbooth adjoins the parish church, in the burial-ground of which is the tombstone raised by Burns to the memory of Robert Fergusson ; here Dugald Stewart, Adam Smith and other men of note were buried. Almost opposite to it stands Moray House, from the balcony of which the 8th earl of Argyll watched Montrose led to execution (165o). The gaol (no longer used as such), is a castellated structure on the black rock of Calton Hill. Usher Hall (1914), a very fine meeting hall in Lothian Road was built on the bequest of f ioo,000 by Andrew Usher (1826-98). The library of the solicitors to the supreme courts presents to the Cowgate a high frontage in red sandstone. The Sheriff Court Buildings stand on George IV. Bridge, and facing them is Andrew Carnegie's free library (1887 1889). At the corner of High Street and George IV. Bridge stand the County buildings. The Scotsman, the principal daily news paper, is housed in an ornate office in North Bridge Street. Ramsay Gardens, a student's quarter fostered by Prof. Patrick Geddes (b. 1854), grew out of the "goose-pie" house where Allan Ramsay lived. The Outlook Tower on Castle Hill houses collections, partly illustrating town-planning, by Prof. Geddes. The old City Cross (restored at the cost of W. E. Gladstone) stands in High Street, adjoining St. Giles's. Several quaint groups of buildings have been carefully restored, such as the White Horse Close in the Canon gate ; the mass of alleys on the north side of the Lawnmarket, from Paterson's Close to James's Court have been connected, and here Lord Rosebery acquired and restored the i 7th-century dwell ing which figures in the legend of My Aunt Margaret's Mirror. It is used as a branch museum. Another model restoration of a historic close is found in Riddle's Close, which contains a stu dents' settlement. The changes in the Old Town (many of a drastic nature) have been carried out with due regard to the char acter of their environment.

Monuments.

The Scott monument in East Princes Street Gardens was designed by George Meikle Kemp . A column surmounted by a colossal figure of Viscount Melville, Pitt's first lord of the Admiralty, rises from the centre of St. Andrew Square. Burns's monument, in the style of a Greek temple, occupies a prominent position on the Regent Road, on the south ern brow of the lower terrace of Calton Hill. It was originally intended to form a shrine for Flaxman's marble statue of the poet (now in the National Portrait Gallery), but it proved to be too confined to afford a satisfactory view of the sculptor's work and was converted into a museum of Burnsiana (afterwards re moved to the municipal buildings). On Calton Hill is the national monument to commemorate the victory of Waterloo, originally intended to be a reproduction of the Parthenon. The plan was abandoned for lack of funds, after twelve out of the twenty-four Greek pillars had been erected, but it is perhaps more effective in its unfinished state than if it had been completed. The Nelson monument, an elongated turreted structure, stands on the highest cliff of the hill. Close by is the monument to Dugald Stewart, a copy of the choragic monument of Lysicrates. Sir John Steell's equestrian statue of the duke of Wellington stands in front of the Register House, and in Princes Street Gardens are statues of Liv ingstone, Christopher North, Allan Ramsay, Adam Black and Sir J. Y. Simpson, and a memorial to the Scots Greys who fell in the Boer War. In George Street are Chantrey's figures of Pitt and George IV., and a statue of Dr. Chalmers; the 5th duke of Buc cleuch stands beside St. Giles's. Charles II. surveys the spot where Knox was buried ; the reformer himself is in the quadrangle of New College: the statue of Sir David Brewster has been moved from the quadrangle of the university to the new buildings at West Mains; Dr. William Chambers is in Chambers Street, and Frederick, duke of York (1763-1827), and the 4th earl of Ho•e toun are also commemorated. The Gladstone Memorial in St. Andrews Square was unveiled in 1917.

Cemeteries.

In Greyfriars' churchyard the Solemn League and Covenant was signed, and among its many monuments are the Martyrs' monument, recording the merits of the murdered cov enanters, and the tomb of "Bluidy" Mackenzie. There are in teresting memorials in the churchyards of St. Cuthbert's and the Canongate. In the Calton burying-ground are the Roman tomb of David Hume, the obelisk raised in 1844 to the memory of Maurice Margarot, and the graves of Thomas Muir (1765-1798), Thomas Fyshe Palmer (1747-1802), William Skirving and Joseph Gerrald (1765-1796), the political martyrs transported towards the end of the 18th century for advocating parliamentary reform. The Scottish dead in the American Civil War are commemorated in a monument bearing a life-sized figure of Abraham Lincoln and a freed slave.

Parks and Open Spaces.

The older open spaces are Princes Street Gardens, Calton Hill, the Meadows and the Bruntsfield Links. On the southern side is Blackford Hill with the Royal Observatory. Harrison Park is in the congested district of Foun tainbridge. The park at Saughton Hall was opened in 1905, for the western district of the city, and Hillend Park on the Pentland slopes, in 1924. The fine zoological park of 74 acres is beyond Murray field. To the north of the Water of Leith lie Inverleith Park, the Arboretum and the Royal Botanical Garden which in cludes a herbarium, hot-houses, and a museum of economic botany. Near it is the Stevenson Memorial house in Howard Place. The most extensive open spaces surround Arthur's Seat (822 ft.). This is a basaltic hill, said to commemorate King Ar thur, who from its height watched the defeat of the Picts by his followers. It is separated from the narrow valley in which lie the Canongate and Holyrood Palace by Salisbury Crags. Adjoining Holyrood Palace is the King's Park, used as a parade ground Facing the crags on the south-west are the spots familiar to read ers of The Heart of Midlothian, where stood Jeanie Deans's cot tage, and between the crags and Arthur's Seat lies Hunter's Bog, used as a shooting range. Near here too are three small lakes, Duddingston, Dunsappie and St. Margaret's, the last overlooked by the ruins of St. Anthony's chapel.

Environs.

Leith (q.v.), the port of Edinburgh, was incorpor ated with the city in 1920. Newhaven, so called from the harbour constructed in the reign of James IV., had a shipbuilding yard of some repute in former times. The village has always been a fishing-place of importance, and the fishing population still live markedly to themselves. To the west lies Granton, where the 5th duke of Buccleuch constructed a fine harbour. Still farther west lies the village of Cramond, at the mouth of the river Almond, where Roman remains have often been found ; Lauriston Castle is situated in the parish. Cramond Brig was the scene of one of the "roving" adventures of James V., when the life of the "Gude man of Ballengeich" was saved by Jock Howieson of the Brae head. Here are Craigcrook Castle, where Lord Jeffrey spent many years, and Ravelston House, the home of the Keiths. To the south of the metropolis are Colinton, on the Water of Leith, and Currie, which was a Roman station and near which are Curriehill Castle (held by the rebels against Queen Mary), the ruins of Lennox Tower, and Riccarton. At Dalmahoy Castle, near Ratho (pop. 1,672), the seat of the earl of Morton, are preserved the only extant copy of the Bible of the Scottish parliament and the original warrant for committing Queen Mary to Lochleven Castle in Kinross-shire. Craigmillar has a picturesque castle, part of which probably dates from the 12th century. Duddingston, once a quiet village, has become a centre of the distilling and brewing industries. Duddingston House is a seat of the duke of Abercorn. Restalrig, between Duddingston and Leith, was the home of the Logans, from whom the superiority of Leith was purchased in by the queen regent. Sir Robert Logan (d. 1606) was alleged to have been one of the Gowrie conspirators and to have arranged to imprison the king in Fast Castle. This charge was made three years after his death, when his bones were exhumed for trial. He was found guilty of high treason and sentence of forfeiture was pronounced. A small chapel adjoining the old church covers the healing well of St. Triduana. Liberton, a name that recalls the previous existence of a leper's hospital, is situated on the rising ground south of Edinburgh, the parish church being a conspicuous landmark. Portobello is a popular seaside resort within 3 m. of the centre of the city. Its beautiful sands are flanked by a prome nade extending to Joppa. The town dates from the middle of the 18th century, when a cottage was built by a sailor and named Portobello in commemoration of Admiral Vernon's victory in The place does a considerable trade in the making of bricks, bottles, earthenware, tiles and paper and a large electric power station was opened in 1923. Joppa, which adjoins it, has salt works, but is chiefly residential. Lasswade, partly in the Pentlands, famous for its oatmeal, was often the summer resort of Edin burgh worthies. Melville Castle and Auchendinny are in the neighbourhood. Most famous among the environs of Edinburgh are Roslin and Hawthornden. Roslin Castle, on the beautifully wooded precipitous banks of the Esk, dates from the 12th century. The fine chapel, higher up the bank, founded in 1446 by William St. Clair, 3rd earl of Orkney, is believed to be the chancel of what was intended to be a large church ; it suffered at the hands of revolutionary fanatics in 1688. The Gothic details, especially the wreathed "Prentice's pillar," are finely carved. The walk to Hawthornden, about 1 m. distant by the river-side leads to the mansion of the Drummonds, on a lofty cliff falling sheer to the stream. The caverns in the sides of the precipice are said to have afforded Wallace and others refuge in time of trouble, but the old house is most memorable as the home of the poet William Drum mond. The Pentland range contains many points of interest and beauty; Habbie's Howe is some 2 m. from Carlops, and Rullion Green is noted as the field on which the Covenanters were de feated in 1666. Penicuik has paper mills and stone quarries.

Communications.

Both L.M.S.R. (Princes St. Station) and L.N.E.R. (Waverley Station) serve Edinburgh. Besides Leith, Granton and Grangemouth serve as passenger seaports for Edin burgh. Tramways connect all parts of the city, including Leith, Newhaven, Portobello and Joppa ; and a suburban railway, start ing from Waverley station, returns by way of Restalrig, Porto bello, Duddingston, Morningside and Haymarket. In summer, steamers ply between Leith and Aberdour and other pleasure resorts; and there is also a service to Alloa and Stirling.

Population.

In 1801 the number of inhabitants was in 185 i it was 160.302 ; in 1881 it was ; in 1921, the figure was 420,264, and in 1931, The area of the city has been enlarged by successive extensions of its municipal boundaries. In 1896 portions of the parishes of Liberton and Duddingston and the police burgh of Portobello were incorporated and in 190o a further addition was made includ ing Granton, Restalrig, and parts of South Leith and Duddingston. In 192o Leith and the parishes of Corstorphine, Cramond, Liber ton and Colinton, including many villages to the south and west of the city, were incorporated with it.

Government.

By the Redistribution Act of 1918 the city with Musselburgh, was divided for parliamentary purposes into five divisions, each returning one member. Leith also returns a member. The town council, which has its headquarters in the Municipal Buildings in the Royal Exchange, consists of 71 mem bers, a lord provost, 1 o bailies, a dean of guild, a treasurer, a con vener of trades, seven judges of police, and 53 councillors. The corporation has acquired the gas-works, the cable tramways (leased to a company), the electric lighting of the streets, and the water-supply from the Pentlands.

May Meetings.

During the establishment of Episcopacy in Scotland, Edinburgh was the seat of a bishop, and the collegiate church of St. Giles became a cathedral. But the annual meeting of the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland at Edinburgh is now the public manifestation of the predominance of Presby terianism as the national church. In May each year the sovereign appoints a representative as lord high commissioner to the Gen eral Assembly of the Established Church, who takes up his abode usually in the palace of Holyrood, and thence proceeds to the High Church, and so to the assembly hall on the Castle Hill when the lord provost and magistrates offer to him the keys of the city. The General Assembly of the United Free Church is usually held at the same time.

University.

Edinburgh University, the youngest of the Scottish universities, was founded in 1583 by a royal charter, dated 1582, granted by James VI. In 1621 an act of the Scottish parliament accorded to the university all rights and privileges en joyed by other universities in the kingdom, and these were re newed under fresh guarantees in the treaty of union between Eng land and Scotland, and in the Act of Security. Important changes were made in the constitution by acts passed in 1858 and 1889. It was one of the first universities to admit women and in 1916 three hostels for women were built. The students number about 4,000. As a corporation it consists of a chancellor, vice-chancellor, lord rector (elected by the students every three years), principal, pro fessors, registered graduates and matriculated students. With St. Andrews, Glasgow and Aberdeen it sends three members to parlia ment. While the college, as such, bears the name of the College of King James, or King's college, and James VI. is spoken of as its founder, it really originated in the liberality of the citizens of Ed inburgh. William Little of Craigmillar, and his brother Clement Little, advocate, along with James Lawson, the colleague and suc cessor of John Knox, may justly be regarded as true founders. In 158o Clement Little gave all his books, three hundred volumes, for the beginning of a library, and this was augmented by other valu able benefactions, one of the most interesting of which was the library of Drummond of Hawthornden. The older buildings of the university occupy the site of the ancient collegiate church of St. Mary in the Field (the "Kirk of Field"), the scene of the mur der of Darnley. The present structure dates from i 789. The Royal Scottish Museum is structurally united to the university and Minto House college and Heriot-Watt college are practically ad juncts of the university. The medical school stands in Teviot Row, adjoining George Square and the Meadows. The magnificent M'Ewan hall is used for academic and public functions. Closely associated with the medical school, and separated from it by the Middle Meadow Walk, is the Royal Infirmary, designed by David Bryce, R.S.A. (1803-1876), removed from Infirmary Street. Its wards are lodged in a series of turreted pavilions, and cover a large space of ground on the margin of the Meadows, from which, to make room for it, George Watson's College—the most impor tant of the Merchant Company schools—was removed to a site farther west, while the Sick Children's hospital was moved to the southern side of the Meadows. Since 191 o chairs have been established in bacteriology, chemistry, therapeutics, commerce, etc. In 1919 the university acquired 115 acres of land at Liberton, and the new King's Buildings of the university, containing chemi cal laboratories, etc., were opened at West Mains in 1924; a new zoological department also is planned.

Scientific Institutions.

The old Observatory, on Calton Hill, overlooks the district at the head of Leith Walk. The City Ob servatory stands close by, and on Blackford Hill is the newer building of the Royal Observatory.

The museum and lecture-rooms of the Royal College of Sur geons occupy a classical building in Nicolson Street. The college is an ancient corporate body, with a charter of the year 1505, and exercises the powers of instructing in surgery and of giving de grees. Its extra-academical courses are recognized, under certain restrictions, by the University Court, as qualifying for the degree of doctor of medicine.

The Royal College of Physicians is another learned body or ganized, with special privileges, by a charter of incorporation granted by Charles II. in 1681. In their hall in Queen Street are a valuable library and a museum of materia medica. But the col lege as such takes no part in the educational work of the university.

Educational Institutions.

Af ter the Disruption in 1843, and the formation of the Free Church, New College was founded in connection with it for training students in theology. After the amalgamation of the United Presbyterian and the Free Churches, under the designation of the United Free Church of Scotland, New College was utilized by both bodies. The Royal high school, the burgh school par excellence, is an ancient foundation, and the Grecian buildings (1829) on the south of Calton Hill, are its third habitation. Edinburgh Academy was opened in 1825. Fettes Col lege and Merchiston Academy are organized on the model of the great English public schools. For many generations the charitable foundations for the teaching and training of youth were a conspic uous feature in the economy of the city. Foremost among them was the hospital founded for the maintenance and teaching of poor fatherless sons of freemen by George Heriot—the "Jingling Geordie" of Scott's Fortunes of Nigel—the goldsmith and banker of James VI. The quadrangular building in Lauriston, sometimes ascribed to Inigo Jones, is one of the noblest in the city. Even earlier than Heriot's hospital was the Merchant Maiden hospital, founded in 1605, which gave to the daughters of merchants similar advantages to those which Heriot's secured for burgesses' sons. In 1738 George Watson's hospital for boys was founded; then fol lowed the Trades' Maiden hospital for burgesses' daughters, John Watson's, Daniel Stewart's, the Orphans', Gillespie's, Donaldson's hospitals, and other institutions founded by successful merchants of the city, in which poor children of various classes were lodged, boarded and educated. As the New Town expanded, the Heriot Trust—whose revenues were greatly benefited thereby—erected day schools in different districts, in which children received a free education, and, in cases of extreme poverty, a money grant towards maintenance. Public opinion as to the "hospital" system of board and education, however, underwent a revolutionary change after the Education Act of 1872 introduced school boards. The govern ing body was reconstituted in 1885, and the income of the trust is now applied for the upkeep of a day school at Heriot's hospital, and of the Heriot-Watt college as a technical school, and for the provision of scholarships here and elsewhere. The Church of Scot land has a training college; there is a large training college for teachers in Holyrood Road, and a Roman Catholic college (1920) in Colinton Road.

Besides the Royal Infirmary there are a considerable number of more or less specialized institutions, two of the most important being situated at Craiglockhart. Though Trinity hospital, the old est charity in the city, no longer exists as a hospital with resident pensioners, the trustees disburse annually pensions to certain poor burgesses and their wives and children ; and the trust controlling the benevolent branch of the Gillespie hospital endowment is simi larly administered.

Industries.—Edinburgh is residential rather than manufactur ing or commercial, but from 1507, when Walter Chapman set up the first press, to the present day, printing has enjoyed a career of almost continuous vitality. Publishing, on the other hand, has drifted away, only a few leading houses—such as those of Black wood, Chambers and Nelson—still making the city their head quarters. Mapmakers, typefounders, bookbinders and lithog raphers all contribute their share to the prosperity of the city. Brewing is a strong industry, Edinburgh ale being proverbially good. The arts and crafts associated with furniture work, paper making and coach-building may also be specified, whilst tanneries, distilleries, factories for india-rubber goods, electric fittings, rope, hosiery, soap and iron and brass-founding, are prominent. Stone quarrying is carried on, but the vast quarry at Craigleith, from which the stone for much of the New Town was obtained, is abandoned. Owing to the great changes effected during the latter part of the 19th century, some of the old markets were demolished and the system of centralizing trade was not wholly revived. The Waverley Market deals in vegetables and fruit and is used for meetings and concerts. Slaughter-houses, cattle markets and grain markets have been erected at Gorgie, thus obviating the driving of flocks and herds through the streets.

A fort or camp set up on the rock on which Edinburgh Castle now stands was probably the nucleus around which, in prehistoric time, grew a considerable village. Under the protection of the hill-fort, a settlement was established on the ridge running down to the valley at the foot of Salisbury Crags, and another hamlet, according to William Maitland (1693-1757), the earliest historian of Edinburgh, was founded in the area at the north western base of the rock, a district that afterwards became the parish of St. Cuthbert, the oldest in the city. The Romans occu pied the country for more than three hundred years. When they withdrew, the British tribes reasserted their sway. The southern Picts ultimately subdued the Britons, and the castle became their chief stronghold until they were overthrown in 617 (or 629) by the Saxons under Edwin, king of Northumbria, from whom the name of Edinburgh is derived. Symeon of Durham (854) calls it Ed winesburch, and includes the church of St. Cuthbert within the bishopric of Lindisfarne. Its Gaelic name was Dunedin. In the i6th century the latinized form Edina was invented. Long after Edwin's conquest the lowland continued to be debatable territory held by uncertain tenure, but at length it was to a large extent settled anew by Anglo-Saxon and Norman colonists under Mal colm Canmore and his sons.

In the reign of Malcolm Canmore the castle included the king's palace. There his queen, Margaret, grand-niece of Edward the Confessor, died in 1o93. It continued to be a royal residence dur ing the reigns of her three sons, and hence the first rapid growth of the upper town may be referred to the 12th century. The parish church of St. Giles is believed to have been founded in the reign of Alexander I., about 111o, and the Norman keep of the castle, built by his younger brother, David I., continued to be known as David's Tower till its destruction in the siege of 1572. Soon after his accession to the Scottish throne David I. founded the abbey of Holyrood (1128), which from an early date received the court as its guests. But the royal palace continued for centuries to be within the fortress, and there both the Celtic and Stuart kings fre quently resided. Edinburgh was long an exposed frontier town within a territory only ceded to Malcolm II. about 1020; and even under the earlier Stuart kings it was still regarded as a border stronghold. Hence, though the village of Canongate grew up beside the abbey of David I., and Edinburgh was a place of sufficient importance to be reckoned one of the four principal burghs as a judicatory for all commercial matters, nevertheless, even so late as 1450, when it became for the first time a walled town, it did not extend beyond the upper part of the ridge which slopes east wards from the castle. So long, however, as its walls formed the boundary, and space therefore was limited, the citizens had to provide house-room by building dwellings of many storeys. These tall tenements on both sides of what is now High Street and Canongate are still prominent in the Old Town. The streets were mostly very narrow, the main street from the castle to Holyrood Palace and the Cowgate alone permitting the passage of wheeled carriages. In the narrow "wynds" the nobility and gentry paid their visits in sedan chairs.

The other three royal burghs associated with Edinburgh were Stirling, Roxburgh and Berwick; and their enactments form the earliest existing collected body of Scots law. The determination of Edinburgh as the national capital, and as the most frequent scene of parliamentary assemblies, dates from the death of James I. in 1436. Of the thirteen parliaments summoned by that sover eign, only one, the last, was held at Edinburgh, but his assassina tion in the Blackfriars' monastery at Perth led to the transfer of the court and capital from the Tay to the Forth. The coronation of James II. was celebrated in Holyrood Abbey instead of at Scone, and the widowed queen took up her residence, with the young king, in the castle. Of fourteen parliaments summoned dur ing this reign, only one was held at Perth, five met at Stirling and the rest at Edinburgh ; and, notwithstanding the favour shown for Stirling as a royal residence in the following reign, every one of the parliaments of James III. was held at Edinburgh. James II. con ferred on the city various privileges relating to the holding of fairs and markets, and the levying of customs; and by a royal charter of 1452 he gave it pre-eminence over the other burghs. Further immunities and privileges were granted by James III. ; and by a precept of 1482, known as the Golden Charter, he bestowed on the provost and magistrates the hereditary office of sheriff, with power to hold courts, to levy fines, and to impose duties on all mer chandise landed at the port of Leith. Those privileges were re newed and extended by various sovereigns, and especially by a gen eral charter granted by James VI. in 1603.

James III. was a great builder, and, in the prosperous era which followed his son's accession to the throne, the town reached the open valley to the south, with the Cowgate as its chief thorough fare. After Flodden the citizens hastened to construct a second line of wall, enclosing the Cowgate and the heights beyond, since occupied by Greyfriars churches and Heriot's hospital, but still ex cluding the Canongate, as pertaining to the abbey of Holyrood. In the i6th century the movements connected with John Knox and Mary, queen of Scots, caused much activity at Edinburgh Castle. With the departure, however, of the sixth James to fill the English throne in 1603, the town lost its prestige for a long period. Matters were not bettered by the Act of Union signed in a cellar in High Street in 1707, amidst the execrations of the people, and it was not till the hopes of the Jacobites were blasted at Culloden (1746) that the townsfolk began to accept the inevitable. This epoch, when grass grew even in High Street, long lingered in the popular memory as the "dark age." By the accession of George III. (176o), Edinburgh showed signs of revived enterprise. In 1763 the first North Bridge, connecting the Old Town with the sloping ground on which afterwards stood the Register House and the theatre in Shakespeare Square, was opened ; a little later the Nor' Loch was partially drained, and the bridging of the Cowgate in 1785 encouraged expansion south wards. Towards the end of the 18th century the New Town began to take shape on the grand, if formal, lines planned by James Craig (d. 17 95) and the erection of Regent Bridge in Waterloo Place (1819) gave access to Calton Hill. The creation of Princes Street led to further improvement. The earth and debris from the excavation of the sites for the houses in this and adjoining streets had been "dumped" in the centre of the drained Nor' Loch. This unsightly mass of rubbish lay for a while as an eyesore, until it was converted into a broad way joining the new road at Hanover Street with the Old Town at the Lawnmarket. Upon this street, which received the title of the Mound, were erected the Na tional Gallery and the Royal Institution. Speaking generally, the New Town was resorted to by professional men—lawyers, doctors and artists,—and in its principal streets are found the head offices of the leading banks and insurance offices.

The progress of letters, science and learning manifested the re covery of the city. The names of Knox (d. 1S72), Buchanan (1582), Alexander Montgomery (1605), Drummond of Hawthorn den (1649) , Allan Ramsay (17 5 7) , Smollett (I 7 71) , Fergusson (1774) and Burns (1796), carried on the literary associations of the Scottish capital nearly to the close of the i8th century, when various causes combined to give them new significance and value. The university was served by a body of teachers and investigators who won for it a prominent position among European schools. Then succeeded the era of Scott's Marmion and The Lady of the Lake, followed by the Waverley novels and the foundation of Blackwood's Magazine and the Edinburgh Review. The influence of the past survives in many ways, and strong local patriotism, together with certain old-fashioned traits in Edinburgh society, remain characteristic and no less admirable.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.-Mrs.

John S. Smith, Historic Stones and Stories of Bibliography.-Mrs. John S. Smith, Historic Stones and Stories of Bygone Edinburgh (1924) ; E. W. Grierson, Things Seen in Edinburgh (1925) ; Mary D. Stewart, The Romance of the Edinburgh Streets (1925) ; W. F. Gray, An Edinburgh Miscellany (1925) ; J. W. M'Laren, Edinburgh Memories and Some Worthies (1926) .