EDOM, the district situated to the south of Palestine, be tween the Dead Sea and the Gulf of 'Akaba (Aelanitic gulf), the inhabitants of which were regarded by the Israelites as a "broth er" people (see EsAU). On the East it touched Moab, the tribes of the great desert and the northern part of Arabia ; on the West its boundaries were determined by the Sinaitic peninsula, Egypt and Israel. Both Kadesh and Mt. Hor (perhaps Jebel Madera) are represented as lying on its border (Num. xx. 16, 22), and the modern Wadi el-Fikreh, in which the "Scorpion pass" was prob ably situated (Judg. i. 36; Num. xxxiv. 4), may have marked its limits from Jebel Madera north-west towards the southern ex tremity of the Dead sea. Kadesh (`Ain Kadis), however, lies about 5om. south of Beersheba (the southern end of Israel as opposed to Dan in the north), and the precise borders must al ways have been determined by political conditions : by the rela tions between Edom and its neighbours, Judah, the Philistine states, Moab, and the restless desert tribes with which Edom was always very closely allied.
The earliest history of Edom is that of the "sand-dwellers," "archers" or Shasu (perhaps "marauders"), whose conflicts with ancient Egypt are not infrequently mentioned. The first clear reference is in the 8th year of Mineptah (close of 13th century B.e. ), when a tribe of Shasu from Aduma received permission to enter Egypt and feed their flocks. A little more than a century later Rameses III. claims to have overthrown the Saaru among the tribes of the Shasu, and the identification of this name with Seir is usually recognized, although it is naturally uncertain whether the Edomites of Old Testament tradition are meant. Ac cording to the latter, the Edomites were a new race who drove out the Horites from Mt. Seir. The designation suggests that these were "cavedwellers," but although many caves and hollows have been found about Petra (and also in Palestine), this tradi tion probably "serves only to express the idea entertained by later generations concerning their predecessors" (Noldeke).
Not only is Edom as a nation recognized as older than Israel, but a list of eight kings, who reigned before the Israelite mon archy, is preserved in Gen. xxxvi. Saul, the first king of Israel, conquered Edom (I Sam. xiv. 47), and this is the name of the sixth king. (See Camb. anc. Hist. ii. 393) . Of the conquest of Edom by David, several details are given (2 Sam. viii. 13 seq.; I Kings xi. 14 sqq.), although the account of the slaughter is cer tainly exaggerated. The scene was the valley of Salt, probably to the south of the Dead sea. The Edomite prince Hadad escaped to Egypt, and after the death of David returned to Edom. If, as the narrative in Kings xi. implies, he became a troublesome ad versary to Solomon, nothing is known of his achievements, and if Solomon's trading-journeys from Ezion-geber were maintained, Edom must have been weak. Edom was under the rule of Jehosh aphat of Judah, who, with Israel held Ezion-geber (1 Kings xxii. 47 sqq. ; 2 Chron. xx. 35 sqq.) . Some catastrophe befell the fleet, and shortly afterwards Jehoshaphat's son Jehoram had to face a revolt in which Edom and the men of Libnah (the Philistines) were concerned. It was about this period that Israel had con quered Moab, thrusting it farther south towards Edom, and the subsequent success of Moab in throwing off the yoke, and the unsuccessful attempt of Jehoram of Israel to regain the position, may show that Edom was also in alliance with Moab. In the time of Adad-nirari of Assyria (811-782 B.c.) Edom is mentioned as an independent tributary with Beth-Omri (Israel) and Palashtu (Philistia). The absence of Judah is noteworthy. Amaziah of Judah had gained a signal victory over Edom in the valley of Salt (2 Kings xiv. 7) , but after his defeat by Jehoash of Israel there is a gap and the situation is obscure. Consequently it is uncer tain whether Edom was the vassal of the next great Israelite king Jeroboam II., or whether the Assyrian evidence for its inde pendent position belongs to this later time. However, Uzziah, a contemporary of Jeroboam II., and one of the most successful of Judaean kings, overcame Edom and its natural allies (2 Chron. xxvi. 6 sqq.), and at this stage Edomite history becomes more prominent. It joined the great coalition in which Philistia and Israel were leagued against Assyria, and drove out the Judaeans who had been in possession of Elath (2 Kings xvi. 6). On the events that followed see AHAZ ; HEZEKIAH ; PHILISTINES. The Assyrian inscriptions name as tributary kings of Edom, Kausme lek (time of Tiglath-Pileser III.), Malik (?)-ram (7o1 B.c.), and Kaus-gabri (7th century). In the middle of the 7th century both Edom and Moab suffered from the restlessness of the desert tribes, and later joined in the attempt made by Zedekiah of Judah to revolt against Nebuchadrezzar (Jer. xxvii. 3) . In the last years before the fall of Jerusalem many of the Jews found a refuge in Edom (Jer. xl. I 1), although other traditions throw another light upon the attitude of Edom during these disasters. It is said that Edomites burned the temple after the destruction of Jerusalem (I Esd. iv. 45, cf. v. 50), and naturally the weak state of Palestine invited attacks from the outlying tribes; but the tone of certain late writings implies a preliminary period of, at least, neutrality (cf. Deut. ii. 4 sqq., xxiii. 7 seq.; the omission of Edom in xxiii. 3 ; Neh. xiii. I; and in Ezra ix. 1—contrast I Esd. viii. 69). Edom is execrated for revengeful attacks upon the Jews, and its speedy destruction is foretold ; but the passages appear to be later than the disaster of 586 B.C., and may even imply conditions of ter the restoration (Ob. 10 sqq.; Ezek. xxv. 12-14; Jer. xlix. 7; Ps. cxxxvii. 7; Lam. iv. 21 seq., v. 2 sqq.) . At length the day of reck oning came (cf. Is. xxxiv. 5; lxiii. 1-6), and the fate of Edom is still fresh in the mind of Malachi (i. 1-5) : the reference may be to the pressure of the Nabataeans (q.v.) who forced Edom into the south of Judah. The new home of the Edomites is con sequently known as Idumaea. See, for the later history, HEROD; JEWS.
Edom in alliance with the tribes along the trade-routes (Philis tines, Moabites, etc.) was responsible for many attacks upon Israel, carrying away prisoners as slaves for Gaza and Tyre (Am. i. 6 seq., 9) . As an ally or vassal Edom was in touch with the wealth of Arabia (Ezek. xxvii. 16, read "Edom" for "Aram"), and Judah and Israel as well as Gaza and Damascus enjoyed the fruits of its commerce. Edomite and allied tribes were famed for their wisdom (Ob. 8, Jer. xlix. 7 seq., Baruch iii. 22), and besides the possibility of Arabian influence upon Israelite culture, the influence of Midian and related tribes is certain from the tradi tions of Moses and of his work (see JETHRO; KENITES; MOSES), and the Edomite district was a traditional home of Yahweh him self (Deut. xxxiii. 2; Judg. v. 4; Hab. iii. 3) . It should be added, however, that the Edomite names and other evidence point to the cult of other gods, viz., Baal, Hadad, Malik (cf. MoLoCH), Kaus or Kus, and Kozeh (Jos. Ant. xv. 7, 9), who was probably a sky or lightning deity. See article Edom in Hastings E.R.E.