DRYANDER, JONAS (1748-181o), Swedish botanist, was educated at Gothenburg, Lund and at Uppsala under Linnaeus. He visited England in 1782 and became librarian to Sir Joseph Banks. He was librarian to the Royal Society and also to the Linnean Society, of which he was one of the founders in 1788. He was vice-president of the society till his death in London on Oct. 19, 181 o. Besides various papers Dryander published Dissertatio gradualis fungos regno vegetabili vindicans (Lund, and Catalogus bibliothecae historico-naturalis Josephi Banks, Bart. (London, 1796-1800, 5 vols.), and edited Aiton's Hortus Kewensis and Roxburgh's Plants of the Coast of Coro mandel.
sometimes termed French or chemical cleaning, is the process of removing dirt and stains from materials by organic solvents and special soaps and detergents. Greasy and resinous substances collected by wearing apparel, house furnish ings and other articles are first dissolved, and then any insoluble soil is removed mechanically or by detergents. The process was first employed in France about the middle of the 19th century, where the work was done by hand and the operations were very simple. Elaborate machinery was gradually introduced, thus pro viding the basis for an industry which requires not only skill and a thorough knowledge of textiles, leather, etc., but much capital.
Petroleum naphtha and other liquids employed in dry-cleaning are inert toward textile fibres. Water, on the• other hand, causes the fibres to become limp and in many cases to alter in shape and size. For this reason, carefully fitted and accurately draped up holstery and hangings can be successfully cleaned only by dry cleaning methods. Various grades of petroleum naphtha and dry cleaning soap are supplemented by ethyl alcohol, acetone, carbon tetrachloride, acetic acid, etc., for removing spots that do not respond to the ordinary treatment. Most dry-cleaning fluids are inflammable and unless proper precautions are observed, static electrical discharges will ignite the volatile fluid and cause serious injury to life and property. For this reason, dry-cleaning can be practised with safety only in plants designed for the purpose. The demand for a special naphtha for the industry has resulted in the adoption by the National Association of Dyers and Cleaners of the United States and Canada of specifications for a product known as Stoddard solvent, which has eliminated most of the fire hazard and simplified the process of cleaning. This is now gen erally used in America and it has attracted attention in other countries.
In general the process of dry-cleaning is as follows : articles made of strong materials are placed in mechanically revolved washers with petroleum naphtha and dry-cleaning soap. This oper ation is followed by several rinsings in fresh naphtha. The articles are then freed from most of the naphtha in centrifugal extractors and are dried in a current of warm air. Delicate materials are cleaned by hand. After drying they are inspected, and any remain ing spots are removed by special cleaning agents. In all cases the petroleum naphtha used is reclaimed and, after renovation, is used again.
The dry-cleaning industry in the United States and Canada has supported industrial fellowships in the Mellon Institute of Indus trial Research and in the National Bureau of Standards. Specifi cations for a special dry-cleaner's naphtha have been developed, improved methods for naphtha recovery have been devised, more efficient detergents have been made available and many other advances have been made in the art. In 1927 the National Asso ciation Institute of Dyeing and Cleaning built a model plant, research laboratories and school at Silver Springs, Md., to advance the technical side of the industry. There were in 1928 approxi mately 5,00o power dry-cleaning plants in the United States and Canada, employing 6o,000 people doing a total business for the year of about $50o,o00,0o0. European dry-cleaning practice is similar to that of the United States, except that there are fewer plants per unit of population. The plants are much larger, how ever, and some of them have several thousand employees.
(L. E. J.) DRYDEN, JOHN (1631-1700), English poet, born at Ald winkle, in Northamptonshire, of a family with Puritan and anti monarchial leanings, was educated at Westminster school under Dr. Busby, and at Trinity college, Cambridge, where he took his degree in 1654. In that year his father died, leaving him a small estate worth about £6o a year, and he seems to have remained in Cambridge another three years before establishing himself in Lon don, where he is said to have lived in the house of his publisher, Herringman, with whom he was connected until 1679, when Jacob Tonson became his publisher. He had written some elegiac and commendatory verses while he was at school, but the first work which showed the measure of his genius was the Heroic Stanzas (1659) to the memory of Oliver Cromwell. This is a fine tribute to the Protector, and shows Dryden as a disciple of John Donne indeed, but as a direct student of the Latin classics. With the coronation of Charles II. Dryden, the hereditary Puritan and the panegyrist of the Protector hailed the new order in his Astraea Redux (166o), followed by a Panegyric on the Restoration (1661).
For a livelihood Dryden turned to the stage. Having failed with a tragedy on the fate of Henry, duke of Guise, he turned to comedy, for which he admitted he had little taste. The age de manded comedies, and he endeavoured to supply the kind of comedy that the age demanded. His first attempt was unsuccess ful. He then wrote The Wild Gallant, acted in Feb. 1663, by Thomas Killigrew's company in Vere street. Pepys showed good judgment in pronouncing the play "so poor a thing as ever I saw in my life." Dryden never learned moderation in his humour; but he took a lesson from the failure of The Wild Gallant; his next comedy The Rival Ladies, produced before the end of 1663, and printed in the next year, was correctly described by Pepys as "a very innocent and most pretty witty play." But he never quite conquered his tendency to extravagance. The Assignation, or Love in a Nunnery, produced in 1673, was another failure; and even in 168o, after 20 years' experience to guide him, The Kind Keeper, or Mr. Limberham, was prohibited after three representations as being too indecent for stage presentation. The undisciplined force of the man carried him to an excess from which more dexterous writers held back. After the produc tion of The Rival Ladies in 1663, Dryden assisted Sir Robert Howard in the composition of a tragedy in heroic verse The Indian Queen, produced with great splendour in Jan. 1664. Its suc cess, one of the greatest since the reopening of the theatres, was largely due to the magnificent scenic accessories—the battles and sacrifices on the stage, the spirits singing in the air, and the god of dreams ascending through a trap. Dryden followed it up with The Indian Emperor, or the Conquest of Mexico by the Spaniards, acted in 1665. Immediately after the success of The Indian Queen, in the preface to an edition (1664) of The Rival Ladies, Dryden took up the question of the propriety of rhyme in serious plays. Rhyme was not natural, some people had said; to which he answers that it is as natural as blank verse, and that much of its unnaturalness is not the fault of the rhyme but of the writer. Rhyme at once stimulates the imagination, and prevents it from being too discursive in its flights.
In 1668 he published his Essay of Dramatick Poesie. The essay takes the form of a dialogue between Neander (Dryden), Eugenius (Charles, Lord Buckhurst, afterwards earl of Dorset), Crites (Sir R. Howard), and Lisideius (Sir C. Sedley), who is made respon sible for the definition of a play as a "just and lively image of human nature, representing its passions and humours, and the changes of fortune to which it is subject, for the delight and instruction of mankind." Dryden's form is of course borrowed from the ancients, and his main source is the critical work of Cor neille in the prefaces and discourses contained in the edition of 166o, but he was well acquainted with the whole body of con temporary French and Spanish criticism. Crites maintains the superiority of the classical drama ; Lisideius supports the exacting rules of French dramatic writing; Neander defends the English drama of the preceding generations, including, in a long speech, an examination of Ben Jonson's Silent Woman. Neander argues, however, that English drama has much to gain by the observance of exact methods of construction without abandoning entirely the liberty which English writers had always claimed. He then goes on to defend the use of rhyme in serious drama. Howard had argued against the use of rhyme in a "preface" to Four New Plays (1665) , which had furnished the excuse for Dryden's essay. Howard replied to Dryden's essay in a preface to The Duke of Lerma (1668). Dryden at once replied in a masterpiece of sar castic retort and vigorous reasoning, A Defence of an Essay of Dramatique Poesie, prefixed to the second edition (1668) of The Indian Emperor. It is the ablest and most complete statement of his views about the employment of rhymed couplets in tragedy.
Before his return to town at the end of 1666, when the theatres (which had been closed during the disasters of 1665 and 1666) were reopened, Dryden wrote a poem on the Dutch war and the Great Fire entitled Annus Mirabilis (ptd. 1667). The poem is in quatrains, the metre of his Heroic Stanzas in praise of Cromwell, which Dryden chose, he tells us, "because he had ever judged it more noble and of greater dignity both for the sound and number than any other verse in use amongst us." From the reopening of the theatres in 1666 till Nov. 1681, the date of his Absalom and Achitophel, Dryden produced nothing but plays. The stage was his chief source of income. Secret Love, or the Maiden Queen, a tragicomedy, produced in March 1667, was based on an episode in the Artamene, ou le Grand Cyrus of Mlle. de Scudery, the historical original of the "Maiden Queen" being Christina, queen of Sweden. His next play Sir Martin Mar-all, or the Feigned In nocence, an adaptation in prose of the duke of Newcastle's trans lation of Moliere's L'Etourdi, was produced at the Duke's theatre, without the author's name, in 1667. It was about this time that Dryden became a retained writer under contract for the King's theatre, receiving from it f 300 or f 40o a year, till it was burnt down in 1672, and about f 200 for six years more till the beginning of 1678. His co-operation with Davenant in a new version (1667) of Shakespeare's Tempest (for his share in which Dryden can hardly be pardoned on the ground that the chief alterations were happy thoughts of Davenant's, seeing that he affirms he never worked at anything with more delight) must also be supposed to be anterior to the completion of his contract with the Theatre Royal. He was engaged to write three plays a year, and he con tributed only Io plays during the io years of his engagement, finally exhausting the patience of his partners by joining in the composition of a play for the rival house. Comedies produced by him in this period are An Evening's Love, or the Mock Astrologer, an adaptation from Le Feint Astrologue of the younger Corneille, produced at the King's theatre in 1668; Ladies a la Mode (1668) ; Marriage a la Mode (1672) ; The Assignation, or Love in a Nunnery (1673) ; The Kind Keeper, or Mr. Limberham (1678) ; but only Marriage a la Mode was really successful.
While Dryden met with such indifferent success in his willing efforts to supply the demand of the age for low comedy, he struck upon a really popular and profitable vein in heroic tragedy. Tyran nic Love, or the Royal Martyr, a Roman play dealing with the persecution of the Christians by Maximin, was produced in 1669. It is in rhymed couplets, but the author again did not trust solely for success to them ; for, besides the magic incantations, the sing ing angels, and the view of Paradise, he made Nell Gwyn, who had stabbed herself as Valeria, start to life again as she was being carried off the stage, and speak a riotous epilogue, in violent con trast to the serious character of the play. Almanzor and Almahide, or the Conquest of Granada, a tragedy in two parts, was written in 1669 to 167o. This piece seems to have given the crowning touch of provocation to the wits, who ridiculed the popular taste for these extravagant heroic plays. The Rehearsal (1671) written by the duke of Buckingham, with the assistance, it was said, of Samuel Butler, Martin Clifford, Thomas Sprat and others, was a severe and just punishment for Dryden's boast in the epilogue to the second part of The Conquest of Granada of the superiority of Restoration comedy over that of the Elizabethan age. Davenant was originally the hero, but on his death in 1668 the satire was turned upon Dryden, who is ridiculed under the name of Bayes, the name being justified by his appointment in 1670 as poet laureate and historiographer to the king (with a pension of 1300 a year and a butt of canary wine). It is said that The Rehearsal was begun in 1663, but this probably only means that Buckingham and his friends had resolved to burlesque the extravagant heroics of The Indian Queen. Later Dryden fully avenged himself on Buckingham by his portrait of Zimri in Absalom and Achitophel. His immediate reply is contained in the preface "Of Heroic Plays" and the "Defence of the Epilogue," printed in the first edition (1672) of his Conquest of Granada.
His next tragedy Amboyna (1673), put on the stage to inflame the public mind in view of the Dutch war, was written, with the exception of a few passages, in prose, and those passages in blank verse. An opera which he wrote in rhymed couplets, called The State of Innocence, and Fall of Man, an attempt to turn part of Paradise Lost into rhyme, as a proof of its superiority to blank verse, prefaced by an "Apology for Heroique Poetry and Poetique Licence," was entered at Stationers' Hall in 1674, and printed in 1677, but never acted. Dryden praises his original as "undoubtedly one of the greatest, most noble and most sublime poems which either this age or nation has produced." He is said to have had the elder poet's leave "to tag his verses." In Aurengzebe, which was Dryden's last, and also his best rhymed tragedy, he borrowed from contemporary history, for the Great Mogul was still living. In the prologue he confessed that he had grown weary of his long loved mistress rhyme and retracted, with characteristic frankness, his disparaging contrast of the Elizabethan with his own age. But the stings of The Rehearsal had stimulated him to do his utmost to justify his devotion to his mistress, and he claims that Aurengzebe is "the most correct" of his plays. It was entered at Stationers' Hall and probably acted in 1675, and published in the following year.
After the production of Aurengzebe Dryden seems to have re considered the principles of dramatic composition, and to have made a particular study of the works of Shakespeare. The fruits of this appeared in All for Love, or the World W ell Lost, a version of the story of Antony and Cleopatra, produced in 1678, which must be regarded as a very remarkable departure for a man of his age, and a wonderful proof of undiminished openness and plastic ity of mind. In his previous writings on dramatic theory, Dryden, while admiring the rhyme of the French dramatists as an advance in art, did not give unqualified praise to the regularity of their plots; he was disposed to allow the irregular structure of the Elizabethan dramatists, as being more favourable to variety both of action and of character. But now, in frank imitation of Shakespeare, he abandoned rhyme, and, if we might judge from All for Love, and the precepts laid down in his "Grounds of Criticism in Tragedy," prefixed to Troilus and Cressida (1679), the chief point in which he aimed at excelling the Elizabethans was in giving greater unity to his plot. He upheld still the superiority of Shakespeare to the French dramatists in the delineation of character, but he thought that the scope of the action might be restricted, and the parts bound more closely together with advan tage. All for Love and Antony and Cleopatra are two excellent plays for the comparison of the two methods. Dryden gave all his strength to All for Love, writing the play for himself, as he said, and not for the public. The action of his play takes place wholly in Alexandria, within the compass of a few days ; it does not, like Shakespeare's, extend over several years, and present incessant changes of scene. Dryden chooses, as it were, a frag ment of a historical action, a single moment during which motives play within a narrow circle, the culminating point in the relations between his two personages. He devotes his whole play, also, to those relations; only what bears upon them is admitted. In Shakespeare's play we get a certain historical perspective, in which the love of Antony and Cleopatra appears in its true proportions beneath the firmament that overhangs human affairs. In Dryden's play this love is our universe ; all the other concerns of the world retire into a shadowy, indistinct background. If we rise from a comparison of the plays with an impression that the Elizabethan drama is a higher type of drama, taking Dryden's own definition of the word as "a just and lively image of human nature," we rise also with an impression of Dryden's power such as we get from nothing else that he had written since his Heroic Stanzas 20 years bef ore.
It was 12 years before Dryden produced another tragedy worthy of the power shown in All for Love. Don Sebastian was acted and published in 16go. In the interval he wrote Oedipus (ptd. 1679) and The Duke of Guise (ptd. 1683) in conjunction with Nathaniel Lee; Troilus and Cressida (1679) ; The Spanish Friar 0680; Albion and Albanius, an opera (1685) ; Amphitryon (16go). In Troilus and Cressida he follows Shakespeare closely in the plot, but the dialogue is rewritten throughout, and not for the better. The versification and language of the first and the third acts of Oedipus, which with the general plan of the play were Dryden's contribution to the joint work, bear marked evidence of his recent study of Shakespeare. The Duke of Guise, in which he used one scene from his earliest dramatic attempt, provided an obvious parallel with contemporary English politics. Henry III. was identified with Charles II., and Monmouth with the duke. The lord chamberlain refused to license it until the political situa tion was less disturbed. The plot of Don Sebastian is more in tricate than that of All for Love. It has also more of the charac teristics of his heroic dramas ; the extravagance of sentiment and the suddenness of impulse remind us occasionally of The Indian Emperor; but the characters are much more elaborately studied than in Dryden's earlier plays, and the verse is sinewy and power ful. It would be difficult to say whether Don Sebastian or All for Love is his best play ; they share the palm between them. Dryden's subsequent plays are not remarkable. Their titles and dates are : King Arthur, an opera (1691), for which Purcell wrote the music; Cleomenes (1692); Love Triumphant (1694).
Soon of ter Dryden's abandonment of heroic couplets in tragedy, he found new and more congenial work for his favourite instru ment in satire. As usual the idea was not original to Dryden, though he struck in with his majestic step and energy divine, and immediately took the lead. The pioneer was Mulgrave in his Essay on Satire, an attack on Rochester and the court, which was circulated in ms. in 1679. Dryden himself was suspected of the authorship, and he may have given some help in revising it ; but it is not likely that he attacked the king on whom he was de pendent for the greater part of his income, and Mulgrave in a note to his Art of Poetry (1717) expressly asserts Dryden's igno rance. Dryden, however, was attacked in Rose street, Covent Garden, and severely cudgelled by a company of ruffians who were generally supposed to have been hired by Rochester. To wards the close of 1681 Dryden took the field as a satirist on the side of the court, at the moment when Shaftesbury, baffled in his efforts to exclude the duke of York from the throne as a Papist, and to secure the succession of the duke of Monmouth, was waiting his trial fpr high treason. Absalom and Achitophel pro duced a great stir. Nine editions were sold in rapid succession in the course of a year. There was no compunction in Dryden's ridicule and invective. Delicate wit was not one of Dryden's gifts; the motions of his weapon were sweeping, and the blows hard and trenchant. The advantage he had gained by his recent studies of character was fully used in his portraits of Shaftesbury and Buckingham, Achitophel and Zimri. In a play produced in 1681 (The Spanish Friar) he had written on the other side, gratifying the popular feeling by attacking the Roman Catholic priesthood.
Three other satires followed Absalom and Achitophel, one of them hardly inferior in point of literary power. The Medall; a Satyre against Sedition (March 1682) was written in ridicule of the medal struck to commemorate Shaftesbury's acquittal. Then Dryden had to take vengeance on the literary champions of the Whig party who had opened upon him with all their artillery. Their leader, Shadwell, had attacked him in The Medal of John Bayes, which Dryden answered in Oct. 1682 by MacFlecknoe, or a Satyr upon the True-Blew Protestant Poet, T. S. This satire, in which Shadwell filled the title-role, served as the model of the Dunciad. To the second part of Absalom and Achitophel (Nov. 1682), written chiefly by Nahum Tate, he contributed a long passage of invective against Robert Ferguson, one of Monmouth's chief advisers, Elkanah Settle, Shadwell and others. Religio Laici, which appeared in the same month, though nominally an exposi tion of a layman's creed, and deservedly admired as such, was not without a political purpose. It attacked the Papists, but declared the "fanatics" to be still more dangerous.
Dryden's next poem in heroic couplets was in a different strain. On the accession of James, in 1685, he became a Roman Catholic. There has been much discussion as to whether this conversion was or was not sincere ; but it is worth while, to notice that in his earlier defence of the English Church he exhibits a desire for the definite guidance of a presumably infallible creed, and the case for the Roman Church brought forward at the time may have appeared convincing to a mind singularly open to new impressions. At the same time nothing can be clearer than that Dryden always regarded his literary powers as a means of subsistence, and had little scruple about accepting a brief on any side. The Hind and the Panther, published in 1687, is an ingenious argument for Roman Catholicism, put into the mouth of "a milk-white hind, immortal and unchanged." Prior and Montagu, the future earl of Halifax, ridiculed it in The Hind and the Panther transversed to the story of the Country Mouse and the City Mouse. Dryden's other literary services to James were a savage reply to Stillingfleet (who had attacked two papers published by the king) and a trans lation of a life of Xavier in prose. He had written also a panegyric of Charles Threnodia Augustalis (1685), and a poem in honour of the birth of James II.'s heir, under the title of Britannia redi viva (1688).
Dryden did not abjure his new faith on the Revolution, and so lost his office and pension as laureate and historiographer royal. His rival Shadwell reigned in his stead. Dryden was once more thrown mainly upon his pen for support. He turned again to the stage and wrote the plays already enumerated. In the last decade of his life his translations from the classics occupied much of his attention. Ovid's Epistles translated ap peared in 168o; and numerous translations from Virgil, Horace, Ovid, Lucretius and Theocritus appeared in the four volumes of Miscellany Poems—Miscellany Poems (1684), Sylvae (1685), Examen poeticum (1693) , The Annual Miscellany (1694 by the "most eminent hands") ; in 1693 was published the verse trans lation of the Satires of Juvenal and of Persius by "Mr. Dryden and several other eminent hands," which contained his "Discourse concerning the Origin and Progress of Satire"; and in 1697 Jacob Tonson published his most important translation, The Works of Virgil. The book, which was the result of three years' labour, was a vigorous, rather than a close, rendering of Virgil into the style of Dryden. Among other notable poems of this period are the two "Songs for St. Cecilia's Day," written for a London musical society for 1687 and 1697, and published sepa rately. The second of these is the famous ode on "Alexander's Feast." The well-known paraphrase of Veni, Creator Spiritus was printed in the Examen Poeticum, and his "Ode to the memory of Anne Killigrew," called by Dr. Johnson the noblest ode in the language, was written in 1686.
His next work was to render some of Chaucer's and Boccaccio's tales and Ovid's Metamorphoses into his own verse. These trans lations appeared in 170o, a few months before his death, and are known by the title of Fables, Ancient. and Modern. The preface, which is an admirable example of Dryden's prose, contains an excellent appreciation of Chaucer, and, incidentally, an answer to Jeremy Collier's attack on the stage. Thus a large portion of the closing years of Dryden's life was spent in translating for bread. Besides, his three sons held various posts in the service of the pope at Rome, and he could not well be on good terms with both courts. However, he was not molested by the government and in private he was treated with the respect due to his age and his admitted position as the greatest of living English poets. He held a small court at Wills's coffee-house, where he spent his evenings; here he had a chair by the fire in winter and by the window in summer; Congreve, Vanbrugh and Addison were among his ad mirers, and here Pope saw the old poet of whom he was to be the most brilliant disciple. He died at his house in Gerrard street, London, on May 1, 170o and was buried on the 13th of the month in Westminster Abbey. Dryden's portrait, by Sir G. Kneller, is in the National Portrait gallery.