Elementary Education Great Britain

ELEMENTARY EDUCATION (GREAT BRITAIN). While elementary schools were founded before the Reformation (see ScxooLs), the first connected movement towards providing such instruction on a large scale was that inaugurated in 1699 by the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, which by 1729 had led to the foundation of 1,658 charity schools with some 54,000 children. A somewhat similar impetus was provided by the Sunday School movement under Robert Raikes towards the end of the century. But the beginnings of a really national system may be said to date from the commencement of the 19th century, when Lancaster, and later Bell, established respectively unde nominational and Church of England schools.

First State-aided Schools.

The first State grant was made in 1832. In 1843 State aid was given to training colleges. The pupil teacher system was established in 1846. Payment by result, and so examinations (q.v.) were introduced in 1862. In 1870 the first education act was framed and school boards established, to supplement but not to supplant existing church schools with schools in which religious teaching was to be undenominational.

Development of Free Education.

Elementary education was made free in 1891, and in 1898 payment by result was abolished, while during the last 20 years of the century higher grade schools had been developed. In 1902-03 school boards were superseded as the local authorities by the county councils, who were made responsible under the act for all elementary schools in their area. Various unsuccessful attempts were made to upset the new system, as far as the church schools were con cerned, in 1907-08, while during the same period medical in spection and after-care committees were instituted, and increas ing stress was laid on physical training and school hygiene ; the pedagogical side of the board's work had been emphasized in the Suggestions for Teachers (1905) and central schools estab lished in place of the old higher-grade in 1906. Further milestones on the road of progress were the provisions for the preliminary education of the future teachers in secondary schools and the establishment of public training colleges, either locally or in the universities. Other landmarks are the Education Act of 1918, which codified and extended the schools' activities, and in par ticular raised the leaving age to 14, and the introduction of the Burnham scale of salaries in 1920. (C. BR.) The policy of the Board of Education as originally set out in the prefatory memorandum to the Suggestions for Teachers, first published in 1905, and reaffirmed in subsequent issues of the pamphlet (Ed. 2,638) indicated very clearly the ideal that ani mated English administrators, especially since the beginning of the loth century.

The only uniformity of practice that the Board of Education desire to see in the teaching of public elementary schools is that each teacher shall think for himself, and work out for himself, such methods of teaching as may use his powers to the best advantage and be suited to the particular needs and conditions of the school. Uniformity in details of practice (except in the mere routine of school management) is not desirable, even if it were attainable. But freedom implies a corresponding responsi bility in its use.

The administration and inspection of public elementary edu cation upon lines as broad as these have combined with other in fluences to produce the variety which characterizes English and Welsh elementary schools. Other influences besides those directly exercised by the Board of Education may also be set down here.

Influence of Psychological Science.

The study of psy chology has exercised a powerful and widespread influence upon elementary school teaching. For example, the emphasis placed by W. MacDougall (Social Psychology, 1908) and his school upon the importance of "interest" in education has been almost universally reflected in school methods and schemes of work and has been largely although not entirely responsible for many attempts—often singularly original and successful—to co-ordinate the life of the child in school with his life at home and for the adoption of "imaginative methods," e.g., free drawing, dramatiza tion, modelling, etc.

Again, teachers everywhere have taken great interest in both the theory and practice of intelligence tests (q.v.). The realiza tion that the traditional methods of teaching in elementary schools often fail to develop latent ability, has led to original experiment on these lines and to a critical scrutiny of traditional examinations.

Physical Training.

The criticism of medical authorities (closely associated with the development of the school medical service) has checked any tendencies to regard education as an exclusively intellectual process. The modern elementary school has an equal regard for the physical as for the mental develop ment of its pupils, and, quite apart from the specifically remedial action of the school medical officers, now does much to improve the physique of its children. (See PHYSICAL TRAINING.) Con siderable time and attention are devoted to suitable games (largely musical in character) in the infants' schools; and organ ized games, such as cricket, football, swimming, netball and folk dancing are practically universal in the senior schools. Progress has also been made in the provision of schools for the blind, deaf, etc. (See BLIND, TRAINING OF; DEAF AND DUMB, EDUCATION OF.) Individual Methods.—The influence of Mme. Montessori's theories (see MONTESSORI SYSTEM) has been very marked in directing criticism against the traditional classroom methods of teaching and so leading on to a particularly fruitful experimenta tion in individual methods of instruction, which has been re markably general and often remarkably successful in the infants' schools. The great majority of English infants' schools employ "individual methods" to a substantial extent, although seldom to the entire exclusion of the more traditional classroom methods. Somewhat similar methods—such as those adopted under varia tions of the "Dalton plan"—have been largely applied to the case of older pupils, the broad aim being to train the children to use books and to work individually with self-reliance and effect.

Teachers' Courses.

The "teachers' courses" have become more and more important in the development of elementary school teaching. The popularity of "refresher courses" for teachers al ready fully qualified increased steadily after the World War, and these courses are now attended by thousands of teachers annually. (See SUMMER SCHOOLS.) The courses may be held during the school holidays or the school terms ; they may take the shape of continuous fortnights of study or of weekly demonstrations and lectures ; they may be conducted by a local education authority, the Board of Education or private enterprise; they may deal with the theory or practice of education, or aim merely at deepening the teachers' knowledge of a particular subject. But whatever their system they have exerted a very beneficial influence upon elementary school teachers.

Special Developments.

Provision for the advanced educa tion of children capable of profiting by it has been made. The brighter children are drafted away in increasing numbers from the elementary schools at the age of I I–I2 to continue, by means of scholarships and free places, their education in the secondary schools. There has been an increase in many areas of "central schools," "central classes," "higher tops" and distinctively voca tional schools, which also draw their pupils from contributory elementary schools, generally on a selective basis. Thus more and more the children remaining in the elementary schools be yond the age of 12 are those that are left after the cream has been drawn off, and the elementary school is left to solve the problem of a suitable method of education for children not of the first ability. The solution of this problem is dealt with in the paragraph below on the education of the adolescent.

Relations with Parents.

The elementary school as a whole since 1910 has very definitely resisted any tendency to become an educational machine for the instilling of mere information into children. Not many things are so significant as the widespread popularity of the "Education Week"—a week set apart by a local authority in order to explain and exhibit its system of edu cation to the public. (See SCHOOL AND THE HOME.) Infants' Schools.—As regards the infants' school, the special aim here is, not only to impart a rudimentary educational ground ing, but to develop interest and the natural activities, special weight being laid upon oral responsiveness. The lively, eager, interested child, although with the powers of concentration proper to his age, is increasingly regarded as the typical product of the good infant school.

Senior Schools.

In the senior schools the general aim is to train the child in habits of independent work and self-reliance and to cultivate in him an interest and ability in intelligent work, which will stand him in good stead long after leaving school. In particular, the position of arithmetic as the weightiest subject in the elementary school curriculum has been severely shaken, if not definitely occupied by English, which has made great advance. The old multiplicity of subjects has defined itself into two groups—the English group, including reading, spelling, compo sitions, the study of elementary literature, geography and history ; and the mathematical-scientific group, including arithmetic, elementary mathematics and general science. This process of definition, with its accompanying simplification of the whole and co-ordination of parts, has done a great deal to liberalize both the content and method of teaching.

Handwork.

Handwork has established itself firmly as a teaching method; as a subject in the shape of laundry, cookery and housewifery for girls, and wood, metal and varied work for boys, its value is increasingly allowed, especially for the kind of children likely to remain in the elementary schools until their school-life finishes. (See SCHOOL AND ITS CURRICULUM.) Education of the Adolescent.—The most important event in the development of English public education was undoubtedly the issue of the Report on the Education of the Adolescent (1926), by the consultative committee of the Board of Education. This report, rich in educational material and suggestions of all sorts, can only be summarized here. Its chief recommendations are as follows : ( I ) That primary education should be regarded as an initial stage, definitely ending in ordinary cases at the age of I I. At this point all normal children should go forward to some form of post primary education, which preferably should be provided in prem ises other than those used for primary purposes.

(2) That the post-primary stage of education should include not only secondary schools, but other types of post-primary school giving a wide variety of curriculum in accordance with the interests and abilities of the children. The schools which provide post primary education should include, besides secondary schools, the following types :—(a) Selective central schools, (b) non-selective schools, (c) senior classes specially organized for the purpose in primary schools, (d) technical and "trade" schools.

(3) That school attendance up to the age of 15 should be made obligatory by legislation at the beginning of the school year 1932.

The committee suggested that the secondary schools should in future be known as "grammar schools" and the post-primary schools (a, b, c) be named "modern schools"; that the education in the modern schools be planned to cover a three years', and, when possible, a four years' course, and that it should definitely be a more "realistic" and "practical" type than that obtaining in the grammar schools, while being at the same time no less humane.

The president of the Board of Education (Lord Eustace Percy) intimated that he did not consider the moment opportune for introducing legislation for extending the age of compulsory school attendance. The other recommendations of the committee, however, impressed themselves deeply upon the administration of the board and of the local education authorities. In their circular 1,35o of Jan. 1925 the board had already recognized the age of II as the dividing line between "junior" and "senior" education, and had stressed the need of making provision for the advanced instruction of children over the age of I by giving opportunities for suitable classification and organization. The need for these opportunities and for the provision of forms of post-primary instruction alternative to the secondary school was implicitly recognized in the Education Act of 1918, but the effect of the committee's report was to throw into stronger relief the problem of the provision of post-primary education and to impress its importance upon public opinion.

Definite separation of primary and post-primary education could not of course be carried out by a stroke of the pen, when the vast majority of English schools had been structurally planned in accordance with a traditional organization of an infant depart ment for children up to about seven and senior departments for boys and girls from seven to 14 ; when the number of central schools or suitably organized senior schools was inadequate, and the problem was further complicated by "dual control." But the shifting or decline of population had, in many districts, set free a good deal of elementary school accommodation, and when ever such an opportunity occurred, it was seized by the more active local education authorities for a comprehensive reorgan ization of the local schools on the lines of the report. The general drop in the number of births led to much more being found feas ible in this direction than at first appeared. The lines of a further advance are outlined in the Board's Circular 1,397 of May 18, 1928. The circular laid down as the main task of the local educa tion authorities during the years 1930-33 the solution of the closely related problems of the reorganization of the schools on the lines recommended by the Report on the Education of the Adolescent, the elimination of large classes, and the replacement, reconstruction and repair of all defective school premises. An official pamphlet entitled "The New Prospect in Education" gives more detailed suggestions on the grading and instruction of pupils above the age of 11. It will remain for experience to show which are the best of the many paths that are being tried as a means of advance through this difficult and most important territory. By an Act of July 31, 1936, to come into force on Sept. 1, 1939, the age of compulsory school attendance was, with certain provisos, extended to fifteen. (See also EDUCA TION.) (K. M. A.) Throughout the colonial period of American history and during the national period up to the middle of the 19th century the lowest unit of the American educational system was called the district school or sometimes the common school. The district school was not graded and was open to pupils until they reached their majority. It was supported in part by fees levied on the pupils, in part by subscription and in part by taxation. Following the reforms of Horace Mann in Massachusetts and of Henry Barnard in Connecticut and Rhode Island, that is from about 185o on, the lower school was graded. Attendance was restricted to pupils of from 6 to 14 years. In general, throughout the northern States, the elementary school included eight grades. In a few centres in New England nine grades were included. Since the rise of the public school system in the southern States, sub sequent to the Civil War, a seven grade school has been common in such States as Virginia, Texas, Louisiana, Georgia and Alabama.

Since about 1910 a strong tendency has manifested itself throughout the United States to reduce the number of grades in the elementary school to six. The higher grades which formerly were included in the elementary schools, especially the seventh and eighth, have very generally been absorbed into the so-called junior high school. This change is directly traceable to the fact that instruction has so far improved and the number of days dur ing which pupils attend school each year has been so increased that it is now possible to cover in six grades the instructional materials which formerly required a full period of eight years.

Since the middle of the 19th century there has been a great increase in the average schooling of Americans. It is estimated that in 1840 the school attendance of the average citizen was limited to 208 days. In 1870 the number of days of attendance increased to 582, in 1890 to 770. In 1928 the average attendance of Americans was somewhat more than 1,200 days. These changes are due in part to the enactment of compulsory attendance laws in force in all the States. In larger measure, however, the changes are traceable to a growing desire on the part of parents that their children be better prepared for life in the modern world where advanced forms of knowledge are requisite to any high degree of success.

The graded elementary school is everywhere free. The annual expenditure for all public schools has increased from $1.64 per head of the total population in 1870 to $17.3o in 1926; i.e., from per pupil in average attendance in 1870 to $102.05 in 1926. The curriculum of the district and elementary school at first consisted almost exclusively of the so-called three R's, read ing, writing and arithmetic. Since 1865 there has been a rapid expansion of the curriculum. History, geography, physiology, nature study, drawing, manual training, home economics and a number of other less common subjects have appeared in the pro grammes of more progressive schools, until the merging of the upper grades into the high school through the organization of the junior high school.

The expansion of the elementary curriculum has been accom panied by a demand for increased training of teachers. In the period of the district school the teacher was elected by the town meeting or was chosen by the lay officer elected as a trustee of the district. His or her training was often meagre and never included special professional preparation. With the rise of State boards of education in 1837 the practice of certificating teachers through the central State educational authorities has become com mon. All States restrict the local district officers in their choice of teachers to persons thus certificated. The States have also organized normal training schools (q.v.), or teachers colleges as many of them have designated themselves, where teachers may receive a professional training. The first State normal school was established in Massachusetts in 1839. In 1926 there were 400 such institutions with a total enrolment of 294,064. The more progressive elementary schools require teachers to have completed a high school education and to have taken in addition at least two years of training in a normal school. The less progressive schools, especially the one-room schools in rural districts, are often unable to employ normal trained teachers. It is estimated that from 25% to 40% of the rural teachers of the United States are without even a high school education.

The school buildings in which elementary schools are now housed are vastly more commodious and hygienic than were the buildings which housed the district school. These improvements are in part due to the fact that the rise of urban communities has made it possible to concentrate pupils in such numbers in a single building that the building can be provided with facilities which were out of the question in small schools. It is true, however, that even in the rural districts there has been a vast improvement in the construction and equipment of buildings. The Bureau of Education supplies figures which indicate the improvement since 1870. At that date the total value of school property was $130, 383,008. In 1900, when the population of the United States was approximately twice the population of 1870, the value of school property had increased to $550,069,217. In 1926, when the popula tion was about three times that of 187o, the value of school property was $4,676,603,539.

Attendance in elementary schools is made compulsory in all States. The first modern compulsory attendance law was passed in 1852 by the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. The last States to enact such laws were Georgia in 1916 and Mississippi in 1918. The earliest laws were at first inadequately enforced. It was not until the '8os that enforcement was vigorously carried on and then only in the older New England States, especially in Connecticut. Since 1900 there has been a movement to in crease the age up to which pupils are required to attend school. Idaho requires attendance to 18 years of age, and 15 of the older States require attendance to 16. Compulsory attendance legislation is very commonly coupled with legal restrictions of employment of children. For some years the tendency has been to extend the period of education downward. The kindergarten was introduced into certain public school systems, notably in St. Louis, as early as 1873. Since then it has spread slowly until it enrolls (192 7) 6 73, 231 pupils, or between one-fifth and one-sixth as many as are enrolled in the first grade. A number of centres of investigation have laid great emphasis on the importance of the pre-school years in the formation of character, especially on the determination of emotional trends. As a result a number of pre school training classes have been established in which controlled training of very young children is undertaken.

In the form of their organization and control American ele mentary schools are in sharp contrast with European schools of like level. In America the elementary schools are attended by pupils of all social ranks and they lead directly into the high school. Any pupil who completes the work of the elementary school may pass into the upper school. The administrative control of schools in the United States is largely in the hands of local authorities. The State exercises certain general powers, but these powers are, for the most part, such as to leave the local authorities much latitude of choice. For example, as stated, State depart ments grant teaching certificates, but the local authorities choose the teachers for the schools from among the total list of possible candidates. There is in the United States no federal control of education, while in Europe every nation has a minister of educa tion with large powers. The result of local control is that great variations appear, first, in the support provided for schools by different communities, second, in the quality of instruction, and third, in the breadth of the curriculum.

The total enrolment of pupils in all public schools in the United States in 1926 was 24,741,468. Of this number 20,039,051 were in elementary schools. The percentage of pupils enrolled in public schools as compared with the total population from 5 to 17 years of age was in 1926, 82.3%. The total number of school officers in public schools, including supervisory officers and teach ers, was 831,078, of which number 644,631 were teachers in elementary schools. The total expenditure for public education in 1926 was $2,026,308,190, of which amount somewhat more than half, or $1,100,316,674, was for supervisory and instruc tional salaries.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.-E.

P. Cubberley, Public School Administration Bibliography.-E. P. Cubberley, Public School Administration (1916) and The History of Education (192o) ; "Second Report of the Committee on Minimum Essentials in Elementary-School Subjects"; 16th Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, part 1 (1917) ; "Research in Constructing the Elementary School Curriculum" ; Yearbook of the Department of Superintendence of the National Education Association (1925) ; "Statistics of City School Systems" (1925-26) ; Bulletin No. 32 (1927), U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Education; Report of the Commission on Length of Elementary Education (Chicago, 1927) ; The University of Chicago; L. V. Koos, The Junior High School (192 7) . (C. H. J.)