EXODUS, BOOK OF, in the Bible, a book of the Old Tes tament which derives its name, through the Greek, from the event which forms the most prominent feature of the history it narrates, viz., the deliverance of Israel from Egypt. Strictly speaking, however, this title is applicable to the first half only, the historical portion of the book, and takes no account of those chapters which describe the giving of the Law on Mt. Sinai, nor of those which deal with the Tabernacle and its furniture.
The book of Exodus, like the other books of the Hexateuch, is a composite work which has passed, so to speak, through many editions ; hence the order of events which it sets forth cannot lay claim to any higher authority than that of the latest editor. Moreover, the documents from which the book has been compiled belong to different periods in the history of Israel, and each of them, reflects the standpoint of the age in which it was written. The contents are not of equal historical value, but greater weight naturally attaches to the earlier documents in those cases in which the sources are at variance with one another. The contents may be most conveniently treated under three main heads : (a) the historical portion (ch. i.—xviii.) ; (b) the sections dealing with the giving of the Law (xix.—xxiv., xxxii.—xxxiv.), and (c) the con struction of the Tabernacle and its furniture (xxv.—xxxi., xxxv.—xl .) .
(2) vii. 14—xi. 1o. The First Plagues of Egypt. In this section the three main sources are clearly marked off from one another both by their linguistic features and by their difference of repre sentation. The principal source is J from which are derived six plagues, viz., killing of the fish in the river, frogs, insects, mur rain, hail, locusts and the threat to slay all the first-born. The plagues are represented as mainly due to natural causes and follow a natural sequence. Other distinctive features of J's narrative are : (1) Moses alone is bidden to interview Pharaoh ; (2) on each occasion he makes a formal demand; (3) on Pharaoh's refusal the plague is announced, and takes place at a fixed time without any human intervention; (4) when the plague is sent, Pharaoh sends for Moses and entreats his intercession, promising in most cases to accede in part to his request ; when the plague is removed, however, the promise is left unfulfilled, the standing phrase being "and Pharaoh's heart was heavy," or "and Pharaoh made heavy his heart"; (5) the plagues do not affect the children of Israel in Goshen. E's account (water turned into blood, hail, locusts) is more fragmentary, having been doubtless superseded in most cases by the fuller and more graphic narrative of J, but the plague of darkness (x. 2o-23, 27) is found only in this source. As con trasted with J the narrative emphasizes the miraculous character of the plagues. They are brought about by "the rod of God," which Moses wields, the effect being instantaneous and all-em bracing. The Israelites are represented as living among the Egyptians, and enjoy no immunity from the plagues, except that of darkness. Their departure from Egypt is deliberate ; the people have time to borrow raiment and jewels from their neighbours. E regularly uses the phrase "and Pharaoh's heart was strong," or "and Yahweh made strong Pharaoh's heart" and "he would not let the children of Israel (or, them) go." In the priestly narrative (P) the plagues assume the form of a trial of skill between Aaron, who acts at Moses' command, and the Egyptian magicians, and thus connect with vii. 8-13. The magicians succeed in turning the Nile water into blood, and in bringing up frogs, but they fail to bring forth lice, and are themselves smitten with boils; the two last-named plagues have no parallel either in J or E. Throughout the P sections Aaron is associated with Moses, and the regular command given to the latter is, "Say unto Aaron" : no demand is ever made to Pharaoh, and the description of the plague is quite short. The formula employed by P is similar to that of E, but it is distinguished by the addition of "and he hearkened not unto them as Yahweh had spoken." (3) xii. 1—xiii. 16. The Last Plague, the Deliverance from Egypt, the Institution of the Passover and of the Feast of Un leavened Cakes, the Consecration of the First-born. This section presents repetitions and inconsistencies. Thus J's regulations for the Passover (xii. 21-23,27b) are a parallel and divergent account of those given in vv. 1-13 (P). In these verses the choice of the lamb and the manner in which it is to be eaten constitute the essential feature, the smearing with the blood being quite sec ondary; in vv. 21 seq. the latter point is all-important, and no regulations are given for the paschal meal (which, possibly, formed no part of J's original account). Similarly the institution of the Feast of Mazzoth, or Unleavened Cakes (xiii. 3—ioJ), does not form the sequel to the regulations laid down in xii. 14-20 (P), but is independent of them : it omits all reference to the "holy con vocations" and to the abstinence from labour, and is obviously simpler and more primitive. J's account, again, makes important exceptions (xiii. 11-13) to the severe enactment of P with refer ence to the first-born (xiii. 1) . The description of the smiting of the first-born of Egypt is mainly derived from J, who sees in the Feast of Mazzoth a perpetual reminder of the haste with which the Israelites fled from Egypt.
(4) xiii. 17—xv. 21. The Crossing of the Red Sea. According to J the children of Israel departed from Egypt under the guidance of Yahweh, who leads them by day in a pillar of cloud and by night in a pillar of fire (xiii. 21, 22). On hearing of their flight Pharaoh at once starts in pursuit. The Israelites, terrified by the approach of the Egyptians, upbraid Moses, who promises them deliverance by the hand of Yahweh. Yahweh then causes a strong east wind to blow all that night, which drives back the waters from the shallows, and so renders it possible for the host of Israel to cross over. The Egyptians follow, but the progress of their chariots is hindered by the soft sand, and in the morning they are caught by the returning waters. The story, however, has been combined with the somewhat different account of E, which doubtless covered the same ground, and also with that of P. According to the former Moses divided the waters by stretching out his rod, thus presupposing that the crossing took place by day, and the dark cloud which divided the two hosts was miracu lously caused by the angel of God. P also represents the sea as divided by means of Moses' rod, but heightens the effect by describing the crossing as taking place between walls of water. J's version of the Song of Moses probably does not extend beyond xv. 1, and has its counterpart in the very similar song of Miriam (E), in vv. 20, 21. The rest of the song (vv. 2-18) is probably the work of a later writer; for these verses set forth not only the deliverance from Egypt, but also the entrance of Israel into Canaan (vv. 13-17), and further presuppose the existence of the temple (vv. 13b, 17b) .
(5) xv. 22—xviii. 27. Incidents in the Wilderness. The narra tive of the first journeying in the wilderness (xv. 22—xvii. 7) pre sents a series of difficulties which probably owe their origin to the editorial activity of RP, who appears to have transferred to the beginning of the wanderings a number of incidents which rightly belong to the end. The concluding verses of ch. xv. contain J's account of the sweetening of the waters of Marah. Then follows (ch. xvi.) P's version of the sending of the manna and quails. Neither of these stories, however, is in its proper position. The story of the manna belongs to a later period after the departure from Mt. Sinai, and had originally no immediate connection with the story of the quails. The latter, which is incomplete, is derived from Num. xi. (JE) where the incident is placed at the end of the wanderings.
xvii. 8-16. The Battle with Amalek at Rephidim. This incident is derived from E, but is clearly out of place in its present con text. Its close connection with the end of the wanderings is shown by (a), the description of Moses as an infirm old man; (b) the role played by Joshua in contrast with xxiv. 13, xxxiii. I1, where he is introduced as a young man and Moses' minister; and (c) the references elsewhere to the home of the Amalekites who dwelt in the south or south-west of Judah near Kadesh.
Ch. xviii. The visit of Jethro to Moses and the appointment of judges. This story, like the preceding one, is mainly derived from E and is also out of place. Allusions in the chapter itself point unmistakably to a time just before the departure from Sinai Horeb, and this date is confirmed both by Deut. i. 9-16 and by the parallel account of J in Num. x. 29-32.
(b) Ch. xix.—xxiv., xxxii.—xxxiv. The contents of these chap ters, which, owing to their contents, form the most important sec tion in the book of Exodus, may be briefly analysed as follows : In ch. xix. we have a two-fold description of the theophany on Mt. Sinai (or Horeb), followed by the Decalogue in xx. 1-17. Along side of this code we find another dealing in part with the civil and social (xxi. 2—xxii. 17), in part with the religious life of Israel, the so-called Book of the Covenant, xx. 22—xxiii. 19. Ch. xxiv. con tains a composite narrative of the ratification of the covenant. In chs. xxxii. and xxxiii. we have again two narratives of the sin of the people and of Moses' intercession, while in ch. xxxiv. we are confronted with yet another early code, which is practically iden tical with the religious enactments of xx. 22-26; xxii. 29, 30; xxiii. 10-19.
Ch. xix. contains two parallel accounts of the theophany on Horeb-Sinai, from E and J respectively, which differ materially from one another. According to the former, Moses is instructed by God (Elohim) to sanctify the people against the third day (vv. 9a, 10, IIa). This is done and the people are brought by Moses to the foot of the mountain (Horeb), where they hear the divine voice (14-17, 19). In J, on the other hand, it is the priests who are sanctified, and great care must be taken to prevent the people from "breaking through to gaze" (20-22). In this account the mountain is called "Sinai" throughout, and "Yahweh" appears instead of "Elohim." Vv. 3b-8 should follow after xx. 21.
Of the succeeding legislation in xx.—xxiii., xxxii.—xxxiv., un doubtedly the earlier sections are xx. 22-26; xxii. 29, 30; xxiii. 10-19, and xxxiv. 10-26, which contains regulations with regard to worship and religious festivals, and form the basis of the covenant made by Yahweh with Israel on Horeb-Sinai, as recorded by E and J respectively. The narrative which introduces the covenant laws of J has been preserved partly in its present context, ch. xxxiv., partly in xxiv. 1, 2, 9—r I ; the narrative of E, on the other hand, has in part disappeared owing to the interpolation of later material, in part has been retained in xxiv. 3-8. J's narrative xxiv. 1 seq., 9-11 clearly forms the continuation of xix. 20 seq., lib, 13, 25, but the introductory words of v. 1, "and unto Moses he said," point to some omission. Originally, no doubt, it included the re cital of the Divine instructions to the people in accordance with xix. 21 seq., the statement that Yahweh came down on the third and that a long blast was blown on the trumpet (or ram's horn). From xxiv. 1 seq. we learn that Moses and Aaron, Nadab and Abihu, and 70 of the elders were summoned to the top of the mountain, but that Moses alone was permitted to approach Yah weh. Then followed the theophany, and, as the text stands, the sacrificial meal (9—I 1). The conclusion of J's narrative is given in ch. xxxiv., which describes how Moses hewed two tables of stone at Yahweh's command, and went up to the top of the moun tain, where he received the words of the covenant and wrote them on the tables. As it stands, however, this chapter represents the legislation which it contains as the renewal of a former covenant, also written on tables of stone, which had been broken (II), 4a) . But the document from which the chapter, as a whole, is derived, is certainly J, while the previous references to tables of stone and to Moses' breaking them belong to the parallel narrative of E. Moreover, the covenant here set forth (v. I o seq.) is clearly a new one, and contains no hint of any previous legislation, nor of any breach of it by the people. In view of these facts we are forced to conclude that ("like unto the first . . . brakest"), 4a ("and he hewed . . . the first") and v. 28 ("the ten words") formed no part of the original narrative, but were inserted by a later Deuteronomic redactor. In the view of this editor the Deca logue alone formed the basis of the covenant of Sinai-Horeb, and in order to retain J's version, he represented it as a renewal of the tables of stone which Moses had broken.
The legislation contained in xxxiv. 10-26, which may be de scribed as the oldest legal code of the Hexateuch, is almost entirely religious. The parallel collection of E is preserved in xx. 24-26, xxiii. Io-19, to which we should probably add xxii. 29-31 (fat which xxiii. 19a was afterwards substituted). The two collections resemble one another so closely, in form and extent, that they can only be regarded as two versions of the same code. E has how ever, preserved certain additional regulations with regard to the building of altars (xx. 24-26) and the observance of the 7th year (xxiii. 10, I I), and omits the prohibition of molten images (xx. 22, 23, appear to be the work of a redactor) ; xxiii. 20-33, the promises attached to the observance of the covenant, probably formed no part of the original code, but were added by the Deu teronomic redactor. The narrative of E relative to the delivery of these laws has disappeared, but xxiv. 3-8 clearly point back to some such narrative. These verses describe how Moses wrote all the words of the Lord in a book and recited them to the people (v. 7), as the basis of a covenant, which was solemnly ratified by the sprinkling of the blood of the accompanying sacrifices.
In the existing text the covenant laws of E are combined with a mass of civil and other legislation ; and the title "Book of the Covenant" has usually been applied to the whole section, xx. 22— xxiii. 33. However, this section includes three distinct elements; (a) the "words" found in xx. 24-26, xxii. 29-31, xxiii. 10-19; (b) the "judgments," xxi. 2—xxii. 17; and (c) a group of moral and ethical enactments, xxii. 18-28, xxiii. 1-9 ; and though the last two groups are unmistakably derived from E, they cannot have formed part of the original "Book of the Covenant"; for the "judgments" consist of a number of legal decisions concerning points of civil law, which could not have been included in the covenant which the people (xxiv. 3) promised to observe. It is now generally admitted that the words "and the judgments" have been inserted in xxiv. 3a by the redactor to whom the pre sent position of the "judgments" is due. The majority of critics adopt Kuenen's conjecture that the "judgments" were originally delivered by Moses on the borders of Moab, and that when D's revised version of Ex. xxi.—xxiii. was combined with JE, the older code was placed alongside of E's other legislation at Horeb. The third group of laws (xxii. 28-28, xxiii. 1-9) appears to have been added somewhat later than the bulk of xxi.—xxiii. It consists largely of moral injunctions affecting the individual, which cannot have found place in a civil code. At the same time, these additions must for the most part be prier to D, since many of them are included in Deut. xii.—xxvi.
It is obvious that the results obtained by the foregoing analysis of J and E have an important bearing on the history of the re maining section of E's legislation, viz., the Decalogue (q.v.), Ex. xx. 1-17 (=Deut. v. 6-21). At present the "Ten Words" stand in the forefront of E's collection of laws, and it is evident that they were already found in that position by the author of Deu teronomy, who treated them as the sole basis of the covenant of Horeb. The evidence, however, afforded (a) by the parallel version of Deuteronomy and (b) by the literary analysis of J and E not only fails to support this tradition, but excites the gravest suspicions as to the originality both of the form and of the posi tion in which the Decalogue now appears. For when compared with Ex. xx. 1-17 the parallel version of Deut. v. 6 seq. is found to exhibit a number of variations, and in particular, assigns an entirely different reason for the observance of the Sabbath. It is probable that all the commandments were originally expressed in the form of single short sentences, and that the Decalogue in this form was promulgated after the completion of E, but before the writing of D. The two main incidents that precede the de parture of the children of Israel from the mountain (Num. x. 29 seq.) are (I) the sin of the people, and (2) the intercession of Moses, of both of which a double account has been preserved.
(I) The Sin of the People. According to J (xxxii. 25-29) the people, during the absence of Moses, "break loose," i.e., mutiny. Their behaviour excites the anger of Moses on his return, and in response to his appeal the sons of Levi arm themselves and slay a large number of the people : as a reward for their services they are bidden to consecrate themselves to Yahweh. The fragmentary form of the narrative is doubtless due to a later editor, who sub stituted the story of the golden calf (xxxii. 1-6, 35), ac cording to which the sin of the people consisted in direct viola tion of the 2nd commandment. At the instigation of the people Aaron makes a molten calf out of the golden ornaments brought from Egypt ; Moses and Joshua, on their return to the camp, find the people holding festival in honour of the occasion; Moses in his anger breaks the tables of the covenant which he is carrying: he then demolishes the golden calf, and administers a severe re buke to Aaron. The punishment of the people is briefly recorded in v. 35. This latter narrative, which is obviously inconsistent with the story of J, shows unmistakable traces of E. In its present form, however, it can hardly be original, but must have been re vised in accordance with the later Deuteronomic conception.
(2) Moses' Intercession. The account of Moses' intercession has been preserved in J, though the narrative has undergone con siderable dislocation. The true sequence of the narrative appears to be as follows : Moses is commanded to lead the people to Canaan (xxxiii. 1-3) ; he pleads that he is unequal to the task (Num. xi. Ioc, II, 12, 14, 15), and, presumably, asks for as sistance, which is promised (omitted) . Moses then asks for a fuller knowledge of Yahweh and his ways (xxxiii. 12, 13) : this request also is granted (v. 17), and he is emboldened to pray that he may see the glory of Yahweh ; Yahweh replies that his prayer can only be granted in part, for "man shall not see me and live"; a partial revelation is then vouchsafed to Moses (xxxiii. 18-23, xxxiv. 6-8) : finally, Moses beseeches Yahweh to go in the midst of his people, and is assured that Yahweh's presence shall accom pany them (xxxiii. 14-16, xxxiv. g). The passage from Numbers xi., which is here included, is obviously out of place in its present context (the story of the quails), and supplies in part the neces sary antecedent to Ex. xxxiii. 12, 13. A similar displacement has taken place with regard to Ex. xxxiv. 6-9, which clearly forms the sequel to xxxiii. 17-23. The latter passage, however, can hardly represent the conclusion of the interview, which is found more naturally in xxxiii. 14-16.
It is a plausible conjecture that the original narratives of J and E also contained directions for the construction of an ark, as a substitute for the personal presence of Yahweh, and also for the erection of a "tent of meeting" outside the camp, and that these commands were omitted by in favour of the more elaborate instructions given in ch. xxv.—xxix. (P). The subse quent narrative of J (Num. x. 33-36, xiv. 44) implies an account of the making of the ark, while the remarkable descriptions in Ex. xxxiii. 7—II (E) of Moses' practice in regard to the "tent of meeting" points no less clearly to some earlier statement as to the making of this tent. (According to Deut. x. I seq., which is in the main a verbal excerpt from Ex. xxxiv. I seq., Yahweh or dered Moses to make an ark of acacia wood before he ascended the mountain). The history of Exodus in its original form doubt less concluded with the visit of Moses' father-in-law and the ap pointment of judges (ch. xviii.), the departure from the mountain and the battle with Amalek (xvii. 8-16).
(c) The Construction of the Tabernacle and its Furniture (ch. xxv.—xxxi., xxxv.—xl.) . It has long been recognized that the elab orate description of the Tabernacle and its furniture, and the ac companying directions for the dress and consecration of the priests, contained in ch. xxv.—xxxi., have no claim to be regarded as an historical presentment of the Mosaic Tabernacle and its service. The language, style and contents of this section point unmistakably to the hand of P; and it is now generally admitted that these chapters form part of an ideal representation of the post-exilic ritual system, which has been transferred to the Mo saic age.