Eritrea

ERITREA (d-re-trd'g), an Italian colony on the African coast of the Red sea. Area, 45,734 sq.m. Pop. (1931) 621,621, including 5,00o Europeans, of whom 4,565 were Italians. It extends from Ras Kasar, a cape 110 m. S. of Suakin, in 18° 2' N., as far as Ras Dumeira (12° 42' N.), in the Strait of Bab-el–Mandeb, a coast line of about 65o miles. The colony is bounded inland by the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, Abyssinia and French Somaliland. The colony corresponds neither to ethnic nor geographical divisions, and its frontiers, like so many other frontiers in Africa, are almost entirely arbitrary lines. The Dahlak archipelago and other groups of islands along the coast belong to Eritrea.

Physical Features.

The coast-line is of coral formation and is in the neighbourhood of Massawa, thickly studded with small islands. The chief indentations are Annesley bay, immediately south of Massawa, and Assab bay in the south. The colony con sists of two widely-differing regions. The northern division, which is the main part of the colony is mostly part of the Abyssinian plateau, reached from the coast by a steep escarpment. The southern division is part of the Afar or Danakil country. These two regions are connected by a narrow strip of land behind Annesley bay, where the Abyssinian hills approach close to the sea. Southward from this bay the coast-line trends south-east so that at Tajura bay the distance between the Abyssinian hills and the sea is over 200 miles. The Afar country is part of the East African rift-valley, and in the southern parts of the valley its surface is diversified by ranges of hills, frequently volcanic, and by lakes. Here the frontier is drawn 6o kilometres (37.28 m.) from the coast line, so that most of the Afar country belongs to Abyssinia. The volcano of Alid (2,985 ft.) is in Italian territory. Around it is a vast lava field.

At Annesley bay the narrow

coast plain is succeeded by foot hills separated by small valleys through which flow innumerable streams. From these hills the ascent to the plateau which consti tutes northern Eritrea is very steep. This tableland, which has a general elevation of about 6,500 ft. is fairly fertile despite a desert region—Sheb—to the south-east of Keren. It is character ized by rich, well-watered valleys, verdant plains and flat-topped hills with steep sides, running in ranges or isolated. The highest hills in Eritrean territory rise to about io,000 feet. The plateau is known by various names, the region directly west of Massawa being called Hamasen. To the west and north the plateau sinks in terraces to the plains of the Sudan, and eastward falls more abruptly to the Red sea, the coast plain, known as the Samhar, consisting of sandy country covered with mimosa and, along the khors, with a somewhat richer vegetation.

The colony contains no navigable streams. For a short distance the Setit (known in its upper course as the Takazze), a tributary of the Atbara forms the frontier, as does also in its upper course the Gash or Mareb (see ABYSSINIA). The Mareb, often dry in summer, in the floods is a large and impassable river. The Baraka (otherwise Barka) and Anseba rise in the Hamasen plateau, near Asmara, within a short distance of each other. The Baraka flows west and then north ; the Anseba, which has a more easterly course, also flows northward and joins the Baraka a little north of 17° N. A few miles below the confluence the Baraka enters Sudan territory, and after heavy rain discharges some of its water into the Red sea north of Tokar. The watershed separating the Nile basin from the Red sea streams lies between the Mareb and the Khor Baraka.

In the coast zone the heat and humidity are excessive during most of the year, June, September and October being the hottest months. Rains occur between November and April, during which time the temperature is lower. At Massawa the mean temperature is 86° F, but in summer the thermometer often rises to 12o° F in the shade, and the mean for July is F. Rainfall at Massawa is not more than 8 in. a year; at Arsab not more than 2 inches. In the region comprising the slopes of the plateau and up to about 6,000 ft. heat and humidity still prevail, but the temperature is lower and the rainfall rises to 14 inches. On the high plateau the climate is generally moderately cool, with a yearly mean of 67° F. Slight rain falls in the spring and abundant monsoon rains from June to September. On the plateau the climate is suitable for European settlement. Above 8,50o feet the climate becomes sub-alpine in character.

In the low country the flora differs little from that of tropical Africa generally, whilst on the plateau the vegetation is character istic of the temperate zone. The olive tree grows on the high plateau and covers the flanks of the hills to within 3,00o ft. of sea level. The sycamore fig-tree grows to enormous proportions in parts of the plateau. Lower down durra, maize and bultuc grow in profusion. In the northern part of the colony, especially along the Khor Baraka, the dom palm flourishes. The fauna includes, in the low country, the lion, panther, elephant, camel and antelope of numerous species. On the plateau the fauna is that of Abyssinia (q.v.).

Inhabitants.

The inhabitants of the plains and foothills are for the most part semi-nomad shepherds, living on durra and milk. In the north these people are largely of Arab or Hamitic stock, such as the Beni-Amer, but include various negro tribes. Afar and Somali form the population of the southern regions. The inhabitants of the plateau are Abyssinians. Some 115,000 of the Abyssinians are Copts, the rest are Mohammedans; and Islam is the faith of most of the other tribes. The languages spoken by the Abyssinians are Tigrai and Tigre. A warlike race, they have set tled down under Italian rule. They furnish the defence force of the colony (5,000 strong in 1927). Among the native industries are mat-weaving, cotton-weaving, silver-working and rudimentary iron and leather working. (See AFARS ; SOMALILAND; ABYSSINIA.) Towns and Communications.—The chief and only good port is Massawa (q.v.). Assab is a roadstead in the Danakil country. Zula (q.v.), on the shores of Annesley bay, is identified with the ancient Adulis. On the plateau are Asmara (q.v.), the capital, Keren (Cheren), Agordat, Adi Kaleh, Adi Urgi and Barentu, all headquarters of administrative divisions. A railway from Massawa climbs to and crosses the highlands. The section to Asmara, 75 m., completed in 1912, rises to 7,765 ft., the altitude of Asmara. Thence the railway was continued via Keren to Agordat (reached in 1926), and Tessenei, the centre of the cotton-growing area. From Agordat a high road goes west to Kassala in the Sudan. From Keren another main road runs south to Adowa, in Tigre (Abyssinia). In the south, from Assab a road runs west to tap the trade of central Abyssinia. Besides these principal routes there are many secondary roads and camel and mule paths. Every valley leading to the plateau has its ancient way; one of the most fre quented is from Annesley bay up the valley of the Hadas river. There is a well-developed telegraphic system, Massawa being in communication by land lines with Adis Ababa and by cable and wireless with the outer world. Massawa is also a regular port of call for several steamship lines.

Agriculture and Trade.

Agriculture is practically confined to the highlands. The Abyssinians are good agriculturists and cultivate cereals (wheat, barley, durra), beans and peas, coffee and other food crops. Linseed and other oil seeds, flax fibres, dates and tobacco are other products. The chief wealth of the people consists, however, in their sheep, cattle, camels, donkeys and other live stock. State-aided attempts to settle Italian agriculturists on the soil began in 1890; the first experiments were a failure. About 1,900 private individuals succeeded in making profitable farms near Asmara, and their example was copied. But as the Abyssin ians held nearly all the best land the scope for Italians was limited. The coast zone produces salt, and there are valuable pearl and mother-of-pearl fisheries off the Dahlak archipelago.

For many years Italian capitalists showed a disinclination to invest money in the colony, and enterprise by other Europeans was discouraged. The chief industry, which owes its inception to the Italians, is cotton growing in the valleys of the Gash and Baraka rivers. After many years of experimenting, suitable varieties of cotton were found, ginneries were built at Asmara and Massawa, and a beginning was made with irrigation works in the Gash area in 1915. The Gash ends in an inland delta in the Kassala province of the Sudan, and an agreement, made in 1925 with the Sudan Government, regulated the use of its waters by the two countries. In 1926-27 some 6.00o ac. were under cotton and the production of lint 478,000 lb. This was nearly double the output in 1922.

The external trade developed at first slowly ; in 190i it was valued at about £450,000; in 1911 at about £1,175,000, and in 1913 at over £1,500,000. After the World War development was more rapid and the external trade in 1926 was valued at £3,730,000 (imports £2,370,000; exports £1,360,000). These figures in clude the transit trade with Abyssinia and the Sudan. The excess of imports over exports was a constant and marked feature of external trade. Besides cotton goods and food stuffs the imports included machinery, railway material and all the goods required in the development of the colony. The most valuable exports were skins and hides, coffee, linseed and vegetable ivory (the nut of the dum palm) in which there was a marked growth. Other ex ports of value were salt, potash, a little gold (from mines near Asmara), mother-of-pearl and pearls. Trade is mainly with Italy.

Administration and Revenue.

A civil administration was established in 1898. The governor is responsible to the minister of the colonies and is assisted by a body consisting of the heads of departments. There is no legislative council and no direct representation of the people, though, in purely local matters, vil lage headmen, councils of elders and tribal chiefs aid the Italian officials. The colony is divided into commissariats, each with their local organizations. In the administration special attention is de voted to health, education and public works. There is an inde pendent judiciary with the right of appeal for non-natives to the Rome court of caseation. The civil laws for the natives are those sanctioned by local usage and they are administered by native tribunals, with the right of appeal to the colonial court of appeal.

Revenue is derived from customs duties, direct taxation and other sources. For 35 years Eritrea was a charge on the Italian treasury, largely because of the expenditure on the military es tablishment. From 1920, however (when the State contribution was 6,650,00o lire, in a total budget of 24,1 21,000 lire), the cost of civil administration was almost met by local revenue. The budget of 1927-28 was balanced at 42,550,000 lire, the civil ex penditure being returned at 26,330,000 lire and military expendi ture at 16,125,00o lire. No subsidy was required from Italy.

(F. R. C.) History.—Traces of the ancient Eritrean civilization are scarce. During the prosperous periods of ancient Egypt, Egyptian squad rons asserted their rule over the west Red Sea coast, and under the Ptolemies the port of Golden Berenice (Adulis?) was an Egyptian fortress, afterwards abandoned. During the early years of the Roman empire, Eritrea formed part of an important inde pendent state—that of the Axumites (Assamites). At the end of the reign of Nero, and perhaps even earlier, the king of the Ax umites ruled over the Red Sea coast from Suakin to the Strait of Bab-el-Mandeb, and traded constantly with Egypt. This potentate called himself "king of kings," commanded an army and a fleet, coined money, adopted Greek as the official language, and lived on good terms with the Roman empire. The Axumites belonged originally to the Hamitic race, but the immigration of the Him yaritic tribes of southern Arabia speedily imposed a new language and civilization. Therefore the ancient Abyssinian language, Geez, and its living dialects, Amharic and Tigrina, are Semitic, although modified by the influence of the old Hamitic Agau or Agao. Adu lis (Adovlis), slightly to the north of Zula (q.v.), was the chief Axumite port. From Adulis started the main road, which led across the high plateau to the capital Axomis (Axum). Along the road are still to be seen vestiges of cities and inscribed monuments, such as the Himyaritic inscriptions on the high plateau of Kohait, the six obelisks with a Saban inscription at Toconda, and an obelisk with an inscription at Amba Sait. After the rise of the Ethiopian empire the history of Eritrea is bound up with that of Ethiopia (see ABYSSINIA), but the documents of the Portuguese expedition of the 16th century and other Ethiopian records show that all the country north of the Mareb enjoyed relative autonomy under a vassal of the Ethiopian emperor.

Michael, counsellor of Solomon, who was king of the country north of the Mareb, usurped the throne of Solomon during the reign of the Emperor Atziti Jasu II. (1729-53), and, after pro claiming himself ras of Tigre and "protector of the empire," ceded the North Mareb country to an enemy of the rightful dynasty. Hence a long struggle between the dispossessed family and the occupants of the North Mareb throne. The coast regions had meantime passed from the control of the Abyssinians. In the 16th century the Turks made themselves masters of Zula, Massawa, etc., and these places were never recovered by the Abyssinians. In 1865 Massawa and the neighbouring coast was acquired by Egypt, the khedive Ismail entertaining projects for connecting the port by railway with the Nile. The Egyptians took advantage of the civil war in Abyssinia to seize Keren and the Bogos country in 1872, an action against which the negus Johannes (King John), newly come to the throne, did not then protest. In 1875 and 1876 the Egyptians, who sought to increase their conquests, were defeated by the Abyssinians at Gundet and Gura. Walad Michael, the hereditary ruler of Bogos, fought as ally of King John at Gundet and of the Egyptians at Gura. For two years Walad Michael continued to harass the border, but in Dec.

1878 he submitted to King John, by whose orders he was (Sept. 1879) imprisoned upon an amba, or flat-topped mountain, whence he only succeeded in escaping in 189o. In 1879 his territory was given by King John to Ras Alula, who retained it until, in August 1889, the Italians occ 2pied Asmara.

An Egyptian garrison remained at Keren in the Bogos country until 1884, when in consequence of the revolt of the Mandi it was withdrawn, Bogos being occupied by Abyssinia on Sept. 12 of that year. On Feb. 5, 1885, an Italian force, with the approval of Great Britain, occupied Massawa, the Egyptian garrison returning to Egypt. This occupation led to wars with Abyssinia and to the establishment of the colony in its present limits. For Italo Abyssinian relations see ITALY and ABYSSINIA.

The purchase of Assab and the neighbouring region for f i,88o, from the Sultan Berehan of Raheita for use as a coaling station by the Italian Rubattino Steamship Company, in March 187o, formed the nucleus of Italy's colonial possessions. This purchase was protested against by Egypt, Turkey and Great Britain, but eventually, the British opposition being overcome and that of Egypt and Turkey disregarded, Assab, by a decree of July 5, 1882, was declared an Italian colony. Between 1883 and 1888 various treaties were concluded with the sultan of Aussa ceding the Dana kil coast to Italy and recognizing an Italian protectorate over the whole of his country-through which passes the trade route from Assab bay to Shoa.

On Jan. 1, 189o, the various Italian possessions on the coast of the Red sea were united by royal decree into one province under the title of the Colony of Eritrea-so named after the Erythraeum Mare of the Romans. At first the government of the colony was purely military, but after the defeat of the Italians by the Abys sinians at Adowa (1896), the administration was placed upon a civil basis. The frontiers were further defined by a French-Italian convention (Jan. 24, 1900) fixing the frontier between French Somaliland and the Italian possessions at Raheita, and also by various agreements with Great Britain and Abyssinia. A tripartite agreement between Italy, Abyssinia and Great Britain, dated May 15, 1902, placed the territory of the Kanama tribe, on the north bank of the Setit, within Eritrea. A convention of May 16, 1908, settled the Abyssinian-Eritrean frontier in the Afar country, the boundary being fixed at 6o km. from the coast. The task of re constructing the administration on a civil basis and of developing the commerce of the colony was entrusted to Signor F. Martini, who was governor for nine years (1898-1906) . Under civil rule the colony made steady though somewhat slow progress. On Aug. 2, 1928, a private agreement arranged for the cession to Abyssinia of a free zone at the port of Assah, and the construction of a road thence to Addis Ababa. As in earlier disturbances the native forces, known as Ascari, have rendered great assistance to the Italians in their war against Abyssinia for which the colony has served as the major base.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

See Luigi Chiala, La Spedizione di Massana (Turin, Bibliography. See Luigi Chiala, La Spedizione di Massana (Turin, 1888) ; F. Martini, Nell' Africa Italiana (3rd ed. Milan, 1891) ; Abyssinian Green Books published at intervals in 1895 and 1896, covering the period from 187o to the end of the Italo-Abyssinian War; Vico Mantegazza, La Guerr4 in Africa (Florence, 1896) ; C. de la Jonquiere, Les Italiens en Erythee (1897) ; Gen. Baratieri, Memorie d'Africa (1898) ; A. B. Wylde, Modern Abyssinia, chs. v.-ix. (19oi) ; B. Melli, La Colonia Eritrea dalle sue origini al anno 1901 (Parma, 1901) ; G. F. H. Berkeley, The Campaign of Adowa (1902) ; E. D. Schoenfeld, Erythrda and der dgyptische Sudan, chs. 1.-xii. (1904) ; R. Perini, Di qua dal Mareb (Florence, i9o5), a monograph on the Asmara zone ; G. B. Penne, Per l'Italia A f ricana; Studio critico (1906) . For orography and geology see an article by P. Verri in Boll. Soc. Geog. Italiana (1909), and for climate an article in Rivista coloniale (1906) , by A. Tancredi. A. Allori com piled a Piccolo Dizionario eritreo, italiano-arabo-amarico (Milan, 1895)• For Afar consult W. Munzinger, "A Journey through the Afar Country" in Journ. Royal Geog. Soc. for 1869 ; V. Bottego, "Nella Terra dei Danakil," in Boll. Soc. Geog. Italiana, 1892 ; Count C. Rossini, "Al Ragali" in L'Espl. Comm. of Milan, 1903-04 ; and articles by G. Dainelli and O. Marinelli in the Riv. Geog. Italiana of Florence for 1906-08, dealing with the volcanic regions.

Bibliographies will be found in G. Fumagalli's Bibliografia Etiopica (Milan, 1893) and in the Riv. Geog. Italiana for 1907.