ESTONIA, independent republic created February 1918, tending from 57° 27' N. to 59° 42' N. and from 21° 46' E. to 28° 21' E.: bounded north by the Gulf of Finland, west by the Baltic sea and the Gulf of Riga, south- by Latvia and east by Russia. Area 47,559 sq.km. (2,328 sq.km. occupied by 1,512 lakes and 4,167 sq.km. by 818 islands) ; Saaremaa (Osel), Hiiumaa (Dago), Muhumaa (Moon) and Vormsi (Vorms) are its largest islands. The coast is low and the greatest elevation is 450 ft. Moraines cover the surface and are thickest in the south and south-east. They rest on the Devonian in the south and on the Silurian in the north ; beneath are Cambrian strata appearing in the cliffs as stone, sandstone or oilshale. On the islands and in northern Estonia the limestone plain prevails. The river beds are shallow, there is much spring flooding, also bog land from which peat is obtained. The climate is continental save near the sea. The annual precipitation is 535 mm. of which about 25% is snow, which falls between November and April, August has most rain and December most snow. The prevailing winds are south-west and west. Two-thirds of the land (one-third meadow and ture), is under cultivation. Cattle breeding is increasing at the pense of grain cultivation. Winter rye is the most important crop; summer rye and winter and summer wheat, buckwheat, peas, beans, lentils and forage for cattle food, including root crops are also produced. Potato cultivation is diminishing with less demand for potato spirit. Flax is increasingly grown, the fibre is exported and oil cake is used for cattle food. Dairy products have nearly doubled since 1922 and the number of horses, cows, sheep and pigs is much larger than in war times. Forests of fir, pine, birch, aspen and alder, cover 20% of the land, mainly in the south-west and north-east. Of the timber cut 35% is exported, partly as planks, pit-props and sleepers and partly as finished wooden articles. The largest pulp mill in Estonia was destroyed by the Russian army and has not been rebuilt, but there are about 6o small paper and board factories. Under war conditions, dustrial capital was lost, plant and ings destroyed and skilled workers persed. Metal industry, including building, manufacture of agricultural plements, electrical apparatus, small wares, etc., is still small, but cotton, linen and woollen manufactures have become important exports; stone and chemicals are also exported. Oil shale began to be exploited for fuel in 1919 when 9,648 tons of oil were extracted. In 1925 production reached 287,00o tons, and since 1925 all ways use it. The cotton and paper mills work on hydro-electric power. Phosphorite fertiliser is worked from the lower Silurian beds. The trade turnover is increasing and there is a satisfactory balance. Textiles and dairy produce come next to timber and timber products in exports, raw cotton is the chief import. Ger many, Great Britain and Russia take most of the exports and Germany, U.S.A. and Great Britain provide most of the imports. Transit trade from Russia is increasingly small. Estonia is essen tially a maritime country and Tallinn (Reval), its chief port, and capital city, pop. is open all the year, though in some years ice-breakers are temporarily necessary. East of Tal linn the Gulf of Finland is difficult through drift ice; the Gulf of Riga is frozen for 6o to 90 days per annum. Paldiski (Baltic port) is also open and with the help of ice-breakers ships can usually reach Parnu and Narva-Joesuu (Hungerburg, chief timber port). River communication is poor. Tallinn is connected with Latvia and Russia by broad gauge railways ; a branch to Parnu was con structed in 1927. There are narrow gauge railways.
The Esths or Estonians, who call themselves Tallopoeg and Maames, were known to the Russians as Chukhni, to the Letts as Iggauni and to the Finns as Virolaiset. They are of Finnish or Ural-Altaic extraction and resemble Finns (q.v.) physically. Since 1873 an Estonian Literary Society has helped to preserve the language, of which there are three dialects, Tartu, Tallinn and Parnu. A Lutheran catechism was published in Estonian in the 16th century and a translation of the New Testament in 1713. National Songs resembling the Finnish Kalevala (q.v.) were col lected and published by Kreutswald (1857). All children of eight must attend school until they have completed a four years' course or until they are fifteen; poor children are given books, clothing and footwear. The population in 1934 was 1,12 6,41 3, 88.2% Estonians, 8.5% Russians, 1.2% Germans, o.7% Swedes and 1.4% other nationalities. Children of non-Estonian nationality receive instruction in their own language. Secondary schools pro vide 25% of free places, and completion of the course gives entrance to Tartu University, Tallinn Technical Institute, Tallinn Economic College, the Conservatoires at Tallinn and Tartu and the Art School at Tartu, without examination. There are techni cal, agricultural, commercial and naval schools. There are the Estonian Literary Society and scientific societies and a National Museum near Tartu. The library of Tartu University contains im portant manuscripts, with a special Arabic section. There is no national church, but 78% of the population are Lutherans and 18.8% Greek-Orthodox.
The basis and structure of the language has not departed very far from Finnish, and many problems of early Finnish philology can be solved by reference to current Estonian words. From its position, however, the language has been subject to the influx of vocabulary from foreign tongues, the chief loan-words coming from Lithuanian, Gothic and the Slav languages.
There are two main spoken dialects included in the three men tioned above, the northern or "Reval-speech" and the southern, but the written language follows the northern phonology and spell ing, and this has become the standard. The alphabet has 23 letters, the others (c. f. q. w. x. y. z) only appearing in foreign words. It is a highly inflected language, having a noun-declension of 16 cases.
The pronouns are declined through the same cases and the verb system is very complicated. The pronouns are numerous and un dergo declension. These declensions are of two kinds, strong and weak. The termination for weak declensions in the singular is -d, plural -de and -id.
The numerals present an interesting feature and from one to ten they are 1 ides, 2 kaks, 3 kolm, 4 neli, 5 viis, 6 kuus, 7 seitse, 8 kaheksa, 9 uheksa, 10 kumme.
Even these are declined (generally through seven cases) and ordinals and fractions are regularly formed from the cardinal numbers. The stress accent is always on the first syllable of the word, and the laws of letter-attraction operate here as in other Finno-Ugric languages. The pronunciation is simple.
See M. Haltenberger, Landeskunde von Esti (Tartu, 1926) ; E. Ves terinen, Agricultural Conditions in Estonia (Helsinki, 1923) ; Memoire sur l'independance de l'Estorie, presente a la Conference de la Paix par la Delegation estonienne (i919) ; J. P. Parikas, Eesti (Illustrated Hand book in several languages) Tallinn (1923) .
Every Estonian is liable for military service, commencing in the year following his 2oth birthday. This service is in four stages, service in the active army for 18 months, followed by furlough, by service in the reserve, and in the Territorial force. The total period in the active army and first reserve is five years. Service in the Territorial forces lasts until the age of 55, in the active army and its reserves till 45. The budget strength of all ranks in 1927 was 17,340, including 1,500 military officers and officials. The army is organized nominally in three divisions of infantry and artillery, and one for air-defence and coast defence, which includes armoured cars and tanks, and armoured trains. The Government commands the army through the minister of war, who has under him the chief of staff of the army, with inspectors of the various arms, and the general staff, which is charged with administrative as well as with the usual duties. The division of armoured troops is of interest. It comprises two companies of tanks, one company of armoured cars, one of motor vehicles, and a stores company. There is a military air-force, organized as an air regiment, includ ing a land service aviation group of two flights and a training flight, also a seaplane flight, a training section, and a technical section.
See also The Estonian Handbook (1927) ; League of Nations Arma ments Yearbook (1928). (G. G. A.) Navy.—The navy of Estonia is a miniature force consisting of two destroyers, both ex-Russian ships, one torpedo boat and seven miscellaneous vessels, gunboats, minelayers, etc. It is ad ministrated by a combined Ministry of War. The personnel consists of about 1,500 officers and men.
Before the World War Estonia was one of the principal sources of food supply for St. Petersburg (now Leningrad), and Reval was one of Russia's main northern outlets to the sea and a seat of con siderable industry—shipbuilding, metallurgical shops, textile mills, etc.
The problem of reconstruction with which the government was faced after the Treaty of Dorpat was extremely difficult. An agricultural revolution had been created by the expropriation law of Oct. 1919. The big industries were destitute of floating capital after six years of inflation. The whole machinery of government and administration had to be reorganized and built up from its foundations.
The areas under cereals and average cereal crops are about the same as they were before the World War, and Estonia remains a corn-importing country. The area under flax has grown steadily from year to year.
The forests constitute an additional source of fuel and the raw material of the saw mills, three-ply, and paper industries. Cement is another product, the preparation of which is in no way de pendent upon foreign raw materials. Of the industries which are dependent upon foreign raw materials cotton spinning has been the most successfully organized, the exports of cotton yarn hav ing increased from 154 tons in 1922 to 1,282 in 1925.
The Russian Revolution.—Acting on the proposal of the union of Estonian organizations, the Russian provisional Govern ment, on March 12, 1917, united the northern districts of Livonia (inhabited by Estonians) and Estonia. Since the revolution of 1905 Estonia had been working for autonomy and when the Estonian diet met at Reval (Tallinn) on July 14, 1917, its task was to prepare a bill for this purpose. The Bolshevist coup d'etat changed the course of events. The Estonian diet, on Nov. 15, declared its complete local independence. The Bolshevists, how ever, dissolved the diet ; and although national regiments had been formed during the revolution, the fact that Reval was the Russian sea base, and lay exposed to fire from Russian ships, made it expedient to avoid conflict. The Baltic nobility of Estonia, taking their stand on the Treaty of Nystad (1721), declared themselves the authorized representatives of the country, and on Dec. 12, 1917, invoked the aid of German troops. The nobility approached the Estonian diet with the object of securing a joint appeal to Germany; but the diet, well aware of their schemes for German colonization and compulsory denationalization, de cided, at the turn of the year 1917-18 to declare the independence of Estonia.
The subsequent German occupation was designed to turn Esto nia into a Baltic duchy in personal union with Prussia, in con formity with the wishes of the Baltic nobility; but although the representatives of the Estonian peasant-proprietors, when summoned to the Riga Assembly on April 1 o, 1918, refused their consent, Baron Dellingshausen, the leader of the Baltic nobility, forwarded the request for union with Prussia to Berlin, and re ceived the German Emperor's consent on April 21, 1918. After the peace of Brest-Litovsk (see BREST—LITOVSK, TREATIES OF) Soviet Russia renounced her sovereign rights over Estonia by the supplementary agreement of Berlin on Aug. 27, 1918. With the collapse of Germany the Estonian provisional Government re sumed its activities. K. Pats, the former president of the diet, be came Prime Minister; and J. Poska foreign minister. Pats in was appointed provisional president of Estonia.
The Bolshevik Invasion.—The German troops had not been completely withdrawn before a new danger threatened from the east. Narwa had been invested by the Bolshevists, who began to penetrate into Estonia (Nov. 28), aided by landings on the coast of the Gulf of Finland. Estonia's situation was rendered difficult by the fact that the Germans had removed all arms. Out of the cadres of the Estonian regiments of 1917 Gen. Laido ner had begun to organize an Estonian army, while Capt. J. Pitka created a marine force of volunteers and students, forming shock battalions and improvising armoured trains out of goods trucks. Assistance came first in the form of a loan amounting to 20,000,000 Finnish marks, a consignment of arms and a body of over 2,00o volunteers from Estonia's sister-nation, Finland. On Dec. 12, 1918, a British fleet under Admiral Sinclair arrived at Reval, which brought over a supply of arms and took the Gulf of Finland under its protection. Sinclair captured two Russian destroyers and handed them over to Estonia. On Jan. 4, 1919, when the Bolshevists held half Estonia in their grasp, their of fensive was broken, and by the beginning of February the whole country was freed. The Constituent Assembly voted unanimously for independence, and formed a coalition Government.
Throughout the spring, Bolshevik attacks continued. In Ma` the Estonians took the offensive, carrying operations over into Russian territory. The "Northern Corps" of the Russian White Army under Gen. Rodzianko, which had retired into Estonia from Pskov, occupied Yamburg, the Estonians taking Pskov. As the result of an attack to the south, Northern Latvia was freed from the Bolshevists. In the neighbourhood of Riga an encounter oc curred with Gen. R. von der Goltz's German volunteers, who had overthrown the Lettish democratic Government at Libau. Gen. Sir H. Gough, as chief of the Allied military mission, had ruled, in support of the demand of the Estonians, that von der Goltz should not lead his troops against Estonia. In defiance of this, von der Goltz broke the armistice, but on June 21-22, at the battle of Wenden-Ronneburg his army was put to flight and driven out of Northern Latvia. By the intervention of the Allies a new armistice was concluded at Riga on July 3, 1919, and von der Goltz was forced to evacuate.
Peace with Russia.—As neither the White Russians nor the Paris peace conference of the Allies would acknowledge her de jure, Estonia, on Aug. 31, accepted the peace proposals made by Soviet Russia. On Dec. 5, 1919, peace negotiations were opened at Dorpat. An armistice was declared on Dec. 31, and peace was concluded on Feb. 2, 192o. Russia agreed to acknowledge the independence of Estonia and to pay her 15,000,00o gold roubles (,£ 1,5oo,000) from the Russian gold fund, but refused to return the funds, savings and money which had been removed. On the other hand, Estonia was released from any responsibility for Russia's debts abroad. Free transit to Estonian ports was con ceded to Russia. This was the first peace treaty concluded be tween Soviet Russia and any of the border states.
The measure of success with which Estonia has met her eco nomic reconstruction, despite great initial difficulties, and despite inevitable errors, has been largely due to the fact that since 1921 she has managed to balance her budget. Indeed, not only has the budget been balanced, but the capital outlay incidental upon her economic reconstruction has been largely met out of current rev enues. Her taxes have thus been to a considerable extent a form of forced savings.
statistika kukiri—Recueil mensuel du Bureau Central Statistique de l'Esthonie (Reval) ; Eesti Pank, the Bank of Esthonia in 1919-21 (Reval, 1922 etc.) ; Eesti demograafia . . . De mographie (Reval, 1924) ; League of Nations, Report of the Financial Committee on the economic and financial situation of Estonia (Geneva, 1925). Estonian Year Books.
Internal Affairs.—On Oct. I o, 1919, while the war was still in progress, the Estonian Constituent Assembly had passed an Agrarian Reform bill, by which manorial estates of more than 33o hectares, a type of holding which covered more than half of the whole agricultural area, were to be divided in holdings averaging from 20 to 25 hectares. Thus the landless peasant population was satisfied. The last task of the Constituent As sembly was the adoption (June 15, 192o) of a democratic con stitution providing for a Republican Government, with parliament (Riigikogu) consisting of Ioo members elected by universal and secret ballot on the proportional representation system. Direct exercise of power by the people is provided through initiative and referendum.
When the civil war in Russia ended the Supreme Council of the Allies agreed to the de jure recognition of Estonia (Jan. 26, 1921). On Sept. 22 of the same year Estonia was admitted to the League of Nations. Recognition by the United States followed on July 28, 1922.
In March 1934 Estonia, beset by Nazis, Fascists and Commu nists, was brought under martial law, and a year later, all political parties were abolished. Early in 1936 a plebiscite voted by a large majority for a constitution but in September it was announced that the dictatorship would continue for a year. During 1937 a new constitution was drawn up. It came into force in 1938. BIBLIOGRAPHY.-F. Kruse, Urgeschichte des esthnischen Volkstammes (1846) ; F. J. Wiedemann, Grammatik der esthnischen Sprache (1875) ; Bunge, Das Herzogthum Esthland and den Konigen von Ddnemark (1877) ; L. Kuttunen, Viron keilen ddnekhistorian paapurteet (Helsing fors, 1917) ; E. Fromme, Die Republik Estland and das Privateigentum (1922) ; V. J. O'Hara, Esthonia, Past and Present (1922) ; The Baltic and Caucasian States (The Nations of To-day, Ed. J. Buchan, 1923) ; H. Leoke, Republic of Estonia (1923) ; G. E. Luiga, Die Neue Agrarverfassung in Eesti (Dorpat, 1924) ; Estonian Year Book; L'Estonie, office de publicite (1927). (E. LA.)