Examinations

EXAMINATIONS. An "examination" is primarily a test of the "capacity" of individuals. The individuals are generally young people or children; their "capacity" is their power to respond to a, stimulus provided by the examiner. The character of their re sponses is measured by the examiner against a standard of achieve ment usually determined by the type of the examination ; when however, an examination is used to select individuals for a limited number of places it becomes competitive, as in most scholarship and civil service examinations. Success is commonly indicated by an "award" which serves thereafter as a convenient label, a summary of the "capacity" of the individual. Frequently the "award" carries with it certain rights to further education at the expense of a public or corporate body (scholarship at school or university) to practise teaching or medicine or to enter the State service (civil servant). Sometimes the "award" confers, in addi tion, membership of a corporate body of practitioners who monopolize certain services or professions (law, medicine, etc.). Hitherto, in England and Europe generally, the methods em ployed to these ends have been largely founded on written and oral tests in certain specific subjects. The example of the United States of America (see that section), however, in which the appli cation of intelligence tests to examinations has been practised on a large scale, cannot be ignored. In fact, it is already in limited use in Great Britain.

The oldest known system of examinations was that used in China for the selection of officers for the public service (c. 1115 B.c.). The examinations of western countries originated in the universities of the middle ages. The first universities of Europe consisted of corporations of teachers and of students. The mo nopolistic tendency of their system of examinations has dominated subsequent developments.

The object of the universities was to teach ; and to the three customary classes of gild-members, apprentices, companions and masters, corresponded roughly the scholar, the bachelor or pupil teacher, and the master or doctor (two terms at first equivalent). The universities being under the same religious authority, the permission to teach granted by one university was valid for all.

(See UNIVERSITIES.) Bologna.—The earliest university examinations of which a description is available were those in civil and in canon law, held at Bologna during a period subsequent to 1219. The student was admitted without examination as bachelor after from four to six years' study, and after from six to eight years' study became qualified as a candidate for the doctorate. The doctoral examina tion at Bologna during the 13th to 14th centuries consisted of a private examination which was the real test, and a public cere monial (conventus). On the morning of the examination the can didate was assigned two passages in the civil or canon law, which he retired to his house to study, possibly with the aid of the pre senting doctor. Later in the day he gave an exposition of these set passages and was examined by two of the doctors appointed by the college. Other doctors might then put supplementary questions on law arising out of the passages, or might suggest objections to his answers. The fate of the candidate was determined by ballot by a majority vote. The successful candidate, who received the title of licentiate, after payment of a heavy fee and other expenses proceeded to the conventus. This public test comprised the delivery of a speech, and the defence of a thesis on some point of law selected by the candidate, against opponents chosen from among the students. Success was followed by the bestowal of a "licence to teach" by the authority of the pope in the name of the Trinity.

Paris.

In Paris a more complicated system had developed by A.D. 1300. In the faculty of arts there were three degrees—the baccalaureate, the licentiateship and the mastership. At a prelim inary test or "responsions" the candidate had to dispute in gram mar or logic with a master. Certificates of residence and of at tendance at courses in certain subjects had to be presented, and the candidate was tested in the contents of his prescribed books. If successful, he was then admitted to maintain a thesis against an opponent, and as bachelor was permitted to give "cursory" lec tures. Having reached a prescribed age, and five or six years after his matriculation, a bachelor might take the next examination. This test began with an examination in private by the chancellor and four examiners, a scrutiny of records of study and later a public test before the faculty. The names of successful candidates were sent to the chancellor in batches of eight or more arranged in order of merit. Subsequently the candidate maintained, in public, a thesis on a subject chosen by himself and was submitted to a purely formal public examination. Success was followed by the receipt from the chancellor of the licence to teach in the faculty of arts. Some six months later the licentiate took part in a peculiarly solemn disputation known as his "Vespers," gave a formal inaugural lecture before the faculty and was "incepted" into the mastership.

In the mediaeval examination systems lie the origins of many current university practices : certificates of previous study and good conduct, preparation of set-books, questions on matter not specially prepared, division of the test into various parts, orders of merit, payment of fees, the presentation of a dissertation, and the defence and publication of a thesis. Occasionally the system was abused, yet at its best it probably served its f unction to test would-be teachers. Written and practical examinations came into use as university teaching broadened in scope.

British Universities.

At Oxford (q.v.), in the middle ages, examinations were apparently confined to "disputations." Laud (1636-38) introduced definite examinations for M.A. and B.A., but it is doubtful how far they were enforced. In the i8th century "the studies fell into an abject state." Important reforms were in troduced in 180o when, by statute, distinctions were first awarded to the ablest candidates for the bachelor's degree. In 183o, in ad dition to the pass examinations, honours examinations were set up; the successful candidates were more rigorously tested and were divided into four classes. By the statutes of 1849 and 1859 an intermediate "Moderations" examination was instituted between the preliminary examination called "Responsions" or "Smalls" and the final examination. Long before the 19th century the B.A. had become the recognized culmination of a long course of study, and in 1807 the examination for M.A. was abolished. A holder of the B.A. degree now proceeds to the M.A. degree on the payment of fees. Responsions have been largely superseded by School cer tificate which a candidate passes before entrance. At Cambridge development followed similar lines and there, also, the M.A. is a mere formality. During the i8th century the "reputation of Cam bridge" was established "as a School of Mathematical Science," but the standard of the final honours examination, the "tripos," did not become generally high till 1840. The preliminary examina tion, the Previous, or "Little-go," now largely superseded by the School certificate, leads to the triposes or to the numerous special subjects necessary for a pass degree (B.A.), from which a can didate must choose three principal and three subsidiary. Nearly all the triposes have been divided into two parts, of which the second is not always obligatory to obtain a degree. British degree examinations were thus developed by the universities and were normally open only to members of the universities in residence. In 1858 the University of London, where examinations had been hitherto confined to students in affiliated colleges, threw open its examinations to all comers who could produce a nominal cer tificate of good conduct, and the university became an examining body pure and simple. Candidates wrote answers to printed questions at examination centres in London, elsewhere in the British Isles and also in the British empire. Candidates for a bachelor's degree took three examinations (matriculation, inter mediate and final) and proceeded to higher degrees by subse quent examination. In 190o the university became hybrid and added to the former system of "external" examinations a parallel system of "internal" examinations for members of con stituent colleges of the university. Women were recognized as eligible for examination at London in 1878, at Cambridge in 188r, at Oxford in 1884. They are now eligible for degrees at all the universities. When, in 188o, the Federal University of Victoria was formed, the examinations were confined to internal students and the practice has been followed in the case of the newer founda tions of Manchester, Liverpool, Leeds (formerly constituent col leges of Victoria university), as well as those of more recent foundation.

In Scottish universities the B.A. has become extinct, and the M.A., awarded on the results of examinations, is the first degree in the faculty of arts. Formerly the M.A. was taken in many sub jects, now the final examination can be taken in honours in one or two.

In Trinity college, Dublin, degrees were also obtainable by external students; but on the foundation of the Royal University of Ireland in the earlier London model was followed of mak ing the university a purely examining body. In 1908 the R.U.I. was replaced by the National University of Ireland and by Queen's university, Belfast. To-day all examinations in Irish universities are closed to external students, except that at Dublin university (as the former Trinity college is now called) ; exemption from the regulations may be given in very exceptional cases.

Since the growth of university studies, the number of examina tions in British and Irish universities has greatly multiplied, and the calendars and regulations now form bulky documents which prescribe the conditions under which degrees can be obtained. The most important new degree is the doctorate of philosophy (Ph.D.) which is awarded on a thesis on any academic subject approved by the faculty concerned.

French Universities.

In France the baccalaureat, which has also become a school-leaving certificate (see below) is the entrance to the university. It leads to the licence in arts, science or law. A point to note in the French examinations, especially the higher ones, is that in many cases the subjects are now often taken separately. Thus the licence in arts or science is granted to the student obtaining four subjects selected by him out of a large number, which he can, if he prefers, take one at a time. The doctorat in arts requires the presentation of these two theses, which often involve years of strenuous work. If these are ac cepted, they are followed by a public soutenance (maintenance) of his thesis by the candidate. The possession of the doctorat is an indispensable qualification for full professorship.

In science a candidate for the doctorate submits two theses, or else one thesis and undergoes an oral examination; in law, a thesis and two oral examinations are required. In medicine there is no licence, but six examinations are to be passed, and a thesis sub mitted. A special doctorat d'Universite, awarded on a thesis and an oral examination, has been instituted for foreign students of graduate standing, and diplomas d'etudes superieures are awarded on subjects such as philosophy, history, etc., and generally taken by persons intending to enter the teaching profession.

German Universities.

Students enter the university by pass ing the "Abiturienten" examination (also known as Reife prufung) at the age of eighteen. For his doctor's examination the student has to present a thesis. If this is accepted, he has to submit to a public oral examination on his principal subject (Hauptfach) and on two or more collateral subjects (Neben facher). He may then give outside lectures in the university, as a Privatdozent. But to become a full university professor, he must have a more advanced thesis (Habilitationsschrift) accepted, and give two specimen lectures, but these latter proceedings have become largely a formality.

In university examinations, most of the other European coun tries follow closely the lines of the French or German model.