GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF ECONOMIC
ENTOMOLOGY Great Britain.—In most civilized countries there now exist services under Government auspices for dealing with insect and other pests of cultivated plants and crops. For many years economic entomology was not officially recognized in Great Britain and the subject was left to the good will of two public spirited private individuals; viz., John Curtis and Eleanor A. Ormerod. John Curtis's work was coincident with the founding of the Royal Agricultural Society in 184o, and on behalf of that body he prepared a series of reports upon insects affecting various crops for the years 1841 to 18S7. Previously he had contributed essays on injurious insects to the columns of the Gardener's Chronicle of Lindley, and the experience thus gained from both these activities enabled him to publish his standard book on farm insects in 186o. Eleanor Ormerod carried forward and greatly extended the work of Curtis, and may be rightly regarded as the patron saint of British economic entomology. From 1876 to 1893, in her capacity of honorary consulting entomologist to the Royal Agricultural Society, she accomplished an enormous amount of valuable advisory work. During that period she published at her own expense, 17 well illustrated reports on injurious insects, which did much towards educating the farmers of the country in the matter of crop pests. She also published a Manual of Injurious Insects and numerous smaller works. Her efforts made the work of Curtis and the early American entomologists accessible to the agricultural community and she may be truly said to have been the pioneer who laid the basis for future progress in Great Britain. In 1889 the Board of Agriculture was formed and Sir Charles Whitehead was its technical adviser on crop pests and other problems. He issued a number of reports and bulletins up to the year 1894. For some years following the board had no whole-time technical adviser on entomological matters and sought any assistance needed, mainly from outside quarters. In 1907 the Destructive Insects act of 1877 (which previously only ap plied to the Colorado beetle) was enlarged so as to enable the board to deal with all pests which may attack crops, trees and bushes. In consequence of passing this act the board created a special staff of inspectors set apart for dealing with plant pests, and also an official entomologist with office accommodation in London. In 1909 the passing of the Development Fund act marked a great advance with respect to all problems relating to insects and other pests of cultivated plants. It provided much needed financial resources for a definite scheme for research and advisory work. The development scheme progressed in several stages, and finally led to the establishment of a phytopathological service of England and Wales. The latter is now divided into two sections, one official and the other non-official. The official section is directly controlled by the Ministry of Agriculture (formerly the Board of Agriculture) and is divided into the plant-pathology laboratory at Harpenden, Herts, an administrative unit in London, and an inspectorial staff of about 3o members. The pathological laboratory is under a director who is, at present, also the official Government entomologist, and there is a small staff of entomologists and mycologists. The non-official section is distributed through various universities, colleges and institutes in the country, and consists of research and advisory divisions. Financial provision comes from Government funds, but the actual duties are largely carried out without State supervision. The research division is located among floe centres, the most impor tant being the phytopathological research institute attached to the Rothamsted Experimental Station. In addition to workers in mycological subjects, this institute has a permanent staff of four entomologists and is a main centre for entomological investi gation in Great Britain. Entomologists are also on the staffs of the Long Ashton Fruit Station, Bristol, the fruit station at East Malling and the Lea Valley station for glasshouse crops at Ches hunt. The advisory division is located in 14 centres or provinces, each centre being established at a university or agricultural col lege. The advisory staff consists of an entomologist and other specialists in each province, who diagnose troubles on behalf of farmers and carry out experiments in the practical control of pests within the local area concerned.
A second important development in British economic entomology took place with the founding of the Imperial Bureau of Entomology in 1913. This bureau, whose offices are in London, is supported financially by contributions from the Imperial Government and the Govern ments of the dominions, colonies and other dependencies of the empire. It issues a monthly review of all current literature bear ing on economic entomology in various countries, and a bulletin for the publication of original researches. It also gives advice to entomologists throughout the empire, identifies insects and ad vises the Colonial Office on appointments and other entomological matters. Under a grant from the Empire Marketing Board it also maintains a parasite laboratory at Farnham Royal, Bucks.
In the United States economic entomology has advanced to a higher degree of efficiency than in any other country. Most of the important advances in remedial measures have been made in America, where also some of the most exact and thorough life-history studies of insect pests have been traced out. Economic entomology in America may be said to start with T. W. Harris, of Massachusetts, who was probably the first entomologist in that country to receive public compensation for his labours. His now classic report on insects injurious to vegetation appeared in 1841, and was elaborated in 1862 as a treatise in book form ; this work is still much consulted by the practical entomologists of the north-eastern section of the country. The first scientific man officially commissioned to investigate insect pests was Asa Fitch, who held the courtesy title of State entomologist of New York from 1854 to 1872. His 14 annual reports on the injurious insects of New York comprise a mass of useful information respecting their life-histories. Almost simul taneously with Fitch's appointment came the establishment of an entomologist under the general Government of the United States. .In 1854 T. Glover was selected for this post and he was succeeded by C. V. Riley in 1878. Owing to a misunderstanding Riley re signed the following year and J. H. Comstock succeeded him as Federal entomologist. Comstock, during the two years of his office, published exceedingly valuable works dealing with cotton, orange and scale insects, which are masterpieces of thoroughness and practicability. In 1881 C. V. Riley resumed charge, and from this time till 1894 he remained continuously in office. He accom plished work of the highest order and has been largely instru mental in placing economic entomology upon its present sound footing in the United States. He developed not only the scientific aspects of the subject and published a vast amount of detailed life-history studies, but under his direction advances were made in insecticides and spraying methods of far-reaching application. Riley's work at the Federal division of entomology, and his earlier labours in the employ of the State of Missouri (to be mentioned hereafter), place him among the outstanding economic entomolo gists of the world. He was succeeded in 1894 by L. O. Howard, who remained in office till 1927, when C. L. Marlatt assumed charge. Under Howard's lengthy and sagacious administration, economic entomology in the Federal Department of Agriculture has been carried forward into a position of efficiency and com manding importance unequalled in any other country. At the present day it forms one of the largest bureaus of the depart ment and has a fiscal grant from Congress which amounted in 1925-26 to $2,500,000 and a staff of over 40o trained entomo logists. The chief of the bureau is located in Washington, to gether with the offices of the heads of the various divisions into which it is organized. The staff are stationed all over the country wherever problems need urgent attention, and in the case of major investigations the work is centred in special laboratories established in areas best adapted to the enquiries in question. Among the most notable of these special laboratories are the cotton-boll weevil laboratory at Tallulah (La.) ; the gypsy moth laboratory at Melrosc Highlands (Mass.) ; the Japanese beetle laboratory at Riverton (N.J.) ; the corn borer laboratory at Arlington (Mass.) ; the bee culture laboratory at Somerset (Md.) , and the European parasite laboratory at Hyeres, France.
Outside the activities of the Federal Government the legisla tures of the various States have their own entomological organ izations. Up to 1888 only four States supported official economic entomologists: Massachusetts (A. S. Packard Jr.), New York (Asa Fitch), Illinois (W. Le Baron) and Missouri (C. V. Riley). It was in the capacity of State entomologist for Missouri that C. V. Riley issued his nine reports, which first established his repu tation ; they are characterized by their original, scientific and practical character, and the very wide range of insect pests which they cover. These reports and the excellence of their original illustrations have made their author's name familiar to economic entomologists outside the United States. In 1888 the organiza tion of the agricultural experiment stations under the Hatch Act was of great importance to economic entomology in America, and at the present day there are one or more experiment stations in every State of the Union. These stations, often in conjunction with State agricultural colleges, maintain among them a staff of more than 200 entomologists, and disseminate a vast amount of practical information through the medium of reports and bulle tins.
Mention must also be made of the United States entomological commission, founded under special act of Congress in 1877, which gave a great impetus to original investigation. Although primarily intended to study the Rocky Mountain locust depredations, the commission also carried out important work on other major pests as well as publishing a standard treatise on insects affecting forest and shade trees. Outside official circles the most important or ganization is the American Association of Economic Entomolo gists, which was founded in 1889 and had, in
practical entomologists on its membership roll.
The first Government entomologist in Canada was James Fletcher, of the Dominion experimental farms, Ottawa, who was appointed in 1884, and his reports and other contribu tions laid the basis for future work in that country. Fletcher's activities were furthered in every way by W. Saunders, the then director of the experimental farms, who was also an economic entomologist of high reputation. In 1908 Fletcher was succeeded by C. G. Hewitt, through whose energies entomology was raised to the status of a separate branch of the Canadian Department of Agriculture, with greatly enhanced scope and activities, and its own offices and laboratories in Ottawa. At the present day the branch is directed by the dominion entomologist assisted by an associate dominion entomologist and two divisional chiefs; there are also entomologists in charge of 14 branch laboratories dis tributed throughout the country. Outside official work, economic entomology in Canada is mainly centred in the Entomological Society of Ontario, whose annual reports, which are subsidized by the State, are of recognized practical and educational value.
The agriculture de partments of most of the dominions, colonies and other depend encies of the empire have on their staffs one or more men quali fied to help the agricultural community to battle against insect pests. The largest entomological organization is that of the Union of South Africa, which maintains a staff of about 20 en tomologists. A certain number of these are engaged in teaching the subject in colleges and schools of agriculture, but the majority are employed by the division of entomology under the Union Department of Agriculture. The division is directed by a chief and the staff are engaged in the study and control of cotton insects, locusts, tsetse fly, tobacco insects and other problems. In Australia the important post of Commonwealth entomologist has recently been established and there are one or more official entomologists attached to the agricultural departments of the provinces. In India there is an Imperial entomologist at the Pusa research institute and also entomologists in the agricultural de partments of the different provinces. A number of entomolo gists are officially employed under the Wellcombe tropical re search laboratories and the Gezira research farm in the Sudan.
Finally, it should be mentioned that good work in economic entomology is being done in most European countries and in Japan.
