ASCENDENCY OF THE DE' MEDICI Giovanni de' Medici.--In 1421 Giovanni de' Medici was elected gonfaloniere of justice, an event which marks the begin ning of that family's power. The same year the republic pur chased Leghorn from the Genoese for 100,00o florins, and estab lished a body of "Consuls of the Sea" to superintend maritime trade. Filippo Maria Visconti, who had succeeded in reconquer ing most of Lombardy, seized Forli. The Florentines declared war on him, and through Venetian intervention, Visconti was finally defeated and forced to accept peace on onerous terms
The old systems of raising revenue no longer corresponded to the needs of the republic, and as early as 1336 the various loans made to the State were consolidated into one national debt (monte). Subsequently all extraordinary expenditure was met by forced loans (prestanze), but owing to the general discontent a catasto or assessment of all the wealth of the citizens was made in 1427, and measures were devised to distribute the obligations according to each man's capacity, so as to avoid pressing too hardly on the poor. The catasto was largely the work of Giovanni de' Medici, who greatly increased his popularity thereby. He died in 1429.
An attempt to capture Lucca led Flor ence, in alliance with Venice, into another costly war with Milan (1432-33). The mismanagement of the campaign brought about a quarrel between the aristocratic party, led by Rinaldo degli Albizzi, and the popular party led by Giovanni de' Medici's son Cosimo (1389-1464). Rinaldo succeeded in getting Cosimo exiled, but his proposal for a coup d'etat met with no response from his own party, and he failed to prevent the election of a pro-Medici signory in 1434. A revolution was only averted through the intervention of Pope Eugene IV. A parlamento was summoned, and the balia appointed decreed the return of Cosimo and the exile of Rinaldo degli Albizzi and others. On Oct. 6,
Cosimo returned to Florence, and for the next three centuries the history of the city is identified with that of the house of Medici.
Cosimo succeeded in dominating the republic while remaining nominally a private citizen. He exiled those who opposed him, and governed by means of the Balla, which, re-elected every five years, appointed all the magistrates and acted according to his orders. In 1437 Florence and Venice were again at war with the Visconti, whose chief captain, Niccolo Piccinino (q.v.), on enter ing Tuscany with many Florentine exiles in his train, was signally defeated at Anghiari by the Florentines under Francesco Sforza (1440) ; peace was made the following year. The system of the catasto, which led to abuses, was abolished, and a progressive income tax (decima scalata) was introduced with the object of lightening the burdens of the poor, who were as a rule Medicean, at the expense of the rich.
In 1464 Cosimo died and was succeeded, not without some opposition, by his son, Piero, who was very infirm. Various plots against him were hatched, but Piero's unexpected energy upset the schemes of his enemies. He died in 1469, leaving two sons, Lorenzo (1449-92) and Giuliano
. The former at once assumed the reins of government and established his domination by means of Provisional Govern ments consisting entirely of Mediceans, to be renewed every five years (1471) . In 1472 a quarrel having arisen with Volterra, Lorenzo sent an expedition against the city, which was sacked, and many of the inhabitants massacred. Owing to a variety of causes an enmity arose between Lorenzo and Pope Sixtus IV., and the latter, if not an accomplice, at all events had cognizance of the Pazzi conspiracy against the Medici (1478) . The result of the plot was that Lorenzo strengthened his position, and put to death or exiled numbers of his enemies. He was excommunicated by Sixtus, who, together with King Ferdinand of Naples, waged war against him. Eventually the Florentines were defeated at Poggio Imperiale and the city itself was in danger. Lorenzo by his boldness in going to Naples succeeded in concluding a peace with the king, which led to a reconciliation with the pope (1479 8o). He was received with enthusiasm on returning to Florence and became absolute master of the city. From that time until his death the city was free from party strife under a de facto despotism. Owing to his political activity Lorenzo had neglected the business interests of his firm, and in order to make good certain heavy losses he seems to have appropriated public funds. His foreign policy, which was magnificent but expensive, rendered further forced loans necessary.
An attempt by the Venetians to seize Ferrara led to a general Italian war, in which Florence also took part on the side hostile to Venice, and when peace was made in 1484, the republic gained some advantages. The following year a revolt of the Neapolitan barons against King Ferdinand broke out, actively supported by Pope Innocent VIII. ; Lorenzo remained neutral at first, but he ended by giving Ferdinand assistance in spite of the king's un popularity in Florence. Peace was made in 1486, and in 1487 Lorenzo regained Sarzana, which Genoa had taken from Florence nine years previously. The general disorders and ceaseless in trigues all over Italy required Lorenzo's constant attention, and he succeeded in making Florence "the needle of the balance of power in Italy." At this time the Dominican friar, Girolamo Savonarola (q.v.), was in Florence, and aroused the whole city by his denunciations of ecclesiastical corruption and also of that of the Florentines. He opposed Lorenzo's Government as the source of the immorality of the people, and to some extent in fluenced public opinion against him. Ill-health now gained on Lorenzo, and Savonarola, whom he had summoned to his bedside, refused to give absolution to the destroyer of Florentine liberties. Lorenzo died in 1492.
1494.—He was succeeded by his son Piero, who had none of his father's capacity and made many blunders. When Charles VIII. of France came to Italy to conquer Naples, Piero decided to assist the latter, but as soon as Charles had entered Florentine territory and captured Sarzana, Piero went to his camp and asked pardon for opposing him. The king demanded the cession of Pisa, Leghorn and other towns, which Piero granted, but on returning to Florence on Nov. 8,
he was refused admittance to the palace, and the people began to shout "Popolo e liberta !" in opposition to the Medicean cry of "Palle, Palle!" (from the Medici arms). With a small escort he fled from the city, followed soon after by his brother Giovanni. That same day Pisa rose in revolt against the Floren tines, and was occupied by Charles. The expulsion of the Medici produced some disorder, but Piero Capponi (q.v.) and other prominent citizens succeeded in keeping the peace. Charles en tered Florence on Nov. 17 at the head of 12,000 men. He was impressed with the wealth and refinement of the citizens, and above all with the solid fortress-like appearance of their palaces. But his demands by no means pleased the Florentines, and when the king began to hint at the recall of Piero de' Medici, whose envoys had gained his ear, the signory ordered the citizens to be ready to resort to arms. The proposal was dropped, but Charles demanded an immense sum of money before he would leave the city. The syndics refused to accept his insolent ultimatum, and the king said in a threatening tone, "Then we shall sound our trumpets," whereupon Capponi tore up the document in his face and replied, "And we shall ring our bells." The king, realizing what street fighting in Florence would mean, at once came to terms ; he contented himself with 120,000 florins, agreeing to give up the fortresses he had taken and to keep the Medici in exile. But it was not until Nov. 28, after an exhortation by Savonarola, whom he greatly respected, that he left Florence.
It was intended to re-establish the Government on the basis of the old republican institutions, but it was found that 6o years of Medici rule had reduced them to mere shadows, and the condition of the Government was utterly chaotic. Conse quently men talked of nothing save of changing the Constitution, but, unfortunately, there was no longer an upper class accustomed to public affairs, while the lower class was thoroughly demoral ized. Savonarola, who had already made a reputation as a moral reformer, began his famous series of political sermons, and gradually a new Government was evolved, each law being enacted as the result of his exhortations. A Greater Council empowered to appoint magistrates and pass laws was formed, to which all citizens who had paid their taxes, and beneficiati (i.e., who had sat in one of the higher magistracies, or whose fathers, grand fathers or great-grandfathers had done so) were eligible. There were 3,200 such citizens, and they sat one-third at a time for six months. The Greater Council was to elect another council of 8o citizens over 4o years old ; this body was to appoint ambassa dors and commissaries of war, and deal with other confidential matters. The system of forced loans was abolished and a 1 o% tax on real property introduced in its stead, and a law of amnesty for political offenders enacted. Savonarola also proposed a court of appeal for criminal and political offences tried by the Otto di guardia e balla; this too was agreed to, but the right of appeal was to be, not to a court, as Savonarola suggested, but to the Greater Council, a fact which led to grave abuses, as judicial appeals became subject to party passions. But in spite of Savo narola's popularity, there was a party called the Bigi (greys) who intrigued secretly in favour of the return of the Medici, while the men of wealth, called the Arrabbiati, although they hated the Medici, were even more openly opposed to the actual regime. The adherents of Savonarola were called the Piagnoni, or snivel lers, while the Neutrali changed sides frequently.
A league between the pope, the emperor, Venice and Spain having been made against Charles VIII., the French king was forced to return to France. On his return journey he violated his promise by giving aid to the Pisans in their revolt against Florence, and did not restore the other fortresses. Piero de' Medici's attempt to seize Florence failed, but the conditions of the city were not prosperous; its resources were strained by the sums paid to Charles and by the war, its credit was shaken, its trade paralysed; famine and plague visited the city, and the war to subjugate Pisa was proceeding unsatisfactorily. Worse still was the death, in 1496, of one of its ablest and most disinterested statesmen, Piero Capponi. The league now attacked Florence, for Pope Alexander VI. hated Savonarola and was determined to destroy the republic, so as to reinstate the Medici temporarily, and prepare the way for his own sons; the Venetians and Im perialists besieged Leghorn, and there was great misery in Flor ence. All this decreased Savonarola's popularity to some extent, but the enemy having been beaten at Leghorn and the league being apparently on the point of breaking up, the Florentines took courage and the friar's party was once more in the ascend ant. Numerous processions were held, Savonarola's sermons against corruption and vice seemed to have temporarily trans formed the citizens, and the carnival of 1497 remained famous for the burning of the "vanities" (i.e., indecent books and pic tures and carnival masks and costumes) . The friar's sermons against ecclesiastical corruption, and especially against the pope, resulted in Savonarola's excommunication. The party hostile to him gained ground with the support of the Franciscans, who disliked the Dominican order. The pope again and again demanded that the friar be surrendered to him, but, in spite of his threats of an interdict against the city, without success. In 1498, however, a signory of Arrabbiati having been elected, Savonarola was arrested and imprisoned. The commission appointed to try him on charges of heresy and treason was composed of his enemies; many irregularities were committed during the three trials, and the prisoner was repeatedly tortured. The outgoing signory secured the election of another which was of their way of thinking, and on May 22, 1498, Savonarola was condemned to death and executed the following day.
The pope having been satisfied, the situation in Florence was less critical for the moment. But Cesare Borgia suddenly demanded the reinstatement of the Medici in Florence, and the danger was only warded off by appointing him captain general of the Florentine forces at a large salary 0500. The weakness of the Government became every day more apparent. In 1502, in order to give more stability to the Government, the office of gon f aloniere, with the right of proposing laws to the signory, was made a life appointment. The election fell on Piero Soderini (1448-1522), an honest public-spirited man of no par ticular party, but lacking in strength of character. One useful measure which he took was the institution of a national militia, at the suggestion of Niccolo Machiavelli 0505). In the mean while the Pisan war dragged on until in 1509 the city was driven by famine to surrender and became a dependency of Florence once more.
In 1510 Pope Julius II., having seceded from the league of Cambrai, in which he had joined France and Spain against Venice, raised the cry of "Fuori i Barbari" (out with the barbarians), with a view to expelling the French -from Italy. King Louis thereupon proposed an oecu menical council and demanded that it be held in Florentine terri tory. The republic agreed to the demand, and the council was opened at Pisa, whereupon the pope immediately placed Florence under an interdict. A Spanish army under Raymundo de Cardona entered the republic's territory and demanded Ioo,000 florins, the dismissal of Soderini, and the readmission of the Medici. Soderini offered to resign, but the Greater Council supported him and preparations for defence were made. In August the Spaniards took Prato by storm and committed hideous atrocities on the in habitants ; Florence was in a panic, a group of the nobles forced Soderini to resign and leave the city, and Cardona's new terms were accepted, viz., the readmission of the Medici, a fine of 150,000 florins and an alliance with Spain.
On Sept. i, 1512, Giuliano and Giovanni de' Medici, and their nephew, Lorenzo, entered Florence with the Spanish troops, and a constitution similar to that of Lorenzo the Magnificent was created. Giuliano became de facto head of the Government, but he did not pursue the usual vindictive policy of his house. In 1513, on the death of Julius II., Giovanni de' Medici was elected pope as Leo X. In March 1514 Giuliano died, and was succeeded by Lorenzo, who was also created duke of Urbino. At his death, in 1519, Cardinal Giulio de' Medici took charge of the Government. He did not rule badly and maintained at all events the outward forms of freedom. In 1523 he was elected pope, as Clement VII., and sent his relatives, Ippolito and Ales sandro, both minors and bastards, to Florence under the tutorship of Cardinal Silvio Passerini.
Cardinal Passerini's regency proved most unpopular, and the city was soon seething with discontent. Revolts broke out and Passerini showed himself quite unequal to the situation. The nobles were mostly anti-Medi cean, and when Filippo Strozzi, and above all his wife, threw their influence in the scales against the Medici, and the magistrates de clared for their expulsion from power, Passerini, Ippolito and Alessandro left Florence (May 17, 1527). A Consiglio degli Scelti was summoned and a constitution similar to that of Savona rola's time was established. The Greater Council was revived and Niccolo Capponi created gonfaloniere for a year. But Florence was torn by factions. Having been re-elected gonfaloniere in spite of much opposition in 1528, Capponi tried to make peace with the pope, but his correspondence with the Vatican resulted in a quite unjustified charge of high treason, and although acquitted he had to resign office and leave the city for six months. Fran cesco Carducci was elected gonfaloniere in his place, and on June 29, 1529, the pope and the emperor concluded a treaty by which the latter agreed to re-establish the Medici in Florence.
Siege of Florence and Restoration of the Medici.—Car ducci made preparations for a siege, but the majority of the people were against him, either from Medicean sympathies or fear, al though the Frateschi, as the believers in Savonarola's views were called, supported him strongly. A body called the Nove della Milizia, of whom Michelangelo (q.v.) Buonarroti was a member, was charged with the defence of the city, and Michelangelo him self superintended the strengthening of the fortifications. A most unfortunate choice for the chief command of the army was the appointment of Malatesta Baglioni. In August an imperial army under Philibert, prince of Orange, advanced on the city. In Sep tember Malatesta surrendered Perugia, and other cities fell before the Imperialists. All attempts to come to terms with the pope were unsuccessful, and by October the siege had begun. Although alone against papacy and empire, the citizens showed the greatest spirit and devotion, and were successful in many sorties. The finest figure produced by these events was Francesco Ferruccio (q.v.) ; by his defence of Empoli he showed himself a first-class soldier, and was appointed commissioner-general. But Malatesta was a traitor at heart and hindered the defence of the city. Fer ruccio, who had recaptured Volterra, marched to Gavinana above Pistoia, to attack the Imperialists in the rear; but in spite of his heroism he was defeated and killed (Aug. 3) ; the prince of Orange also fell in that desperate engagement. The signory, at last realiz ing that Malatesta was a traitor, dismissed him ; but it was too late, and he now behaved as though he were governor of Flor ence ; when the troops attempted to enforce the dismissal he turned his guns on them. On Aug. 9 the signory saw that all hope was lost and entered into negotiations with Don Ferrante Gonzaga, the new imperial commander. On the 12th the capitulation was signed ; Florence was to pay an indemnity of 8o,000 florins, the Medici were to be recalled, the emperor was to establish the new Government, "it being understood that liberty is to be preserved." Baccio Valori, a Medicean who had been in the imperialist camp, took charge; and the city was occupied ny foreign troops. A parlamento was summoned, the usual packed balk' created, and all opposition silenced. The city was given over to Pope Clement, who, disregarding the terms of the capitulation, had Carducci and Girolami (the last gonfaloniere) hanged, and established Ales sandro de' Medici, the natural son of Lorenzo, duke of Urbino, as head of the republic on July 5, 1531. The next year the signory was abolished, Alessandro created gonfaloniere for life, and his lordship made hereditary in his family by imperial patent. Thus Florence lost her liberty, and came to be the capital of the duchy (afterwards grand-duchy) of Tuscany.
The Medici dynasty ruled in Tuscany until the death of Giali Gastone in 1737, when the grand-duchy was assigned to Francis, duke of Lorraine. In 1809 Florence was made capital of the Napoleonic kingdom of Etruria, but after the fall of Napoleon in 1814, the grand duke Ferdinand III. was reinstated. He died in 1824, and was succeeded by Leopold II. In 1848 there was a liberal revolutionary movement in Florence and Leopold granted a constitution. But civil disorders followed, and in 1849 the grand-duke returned under an Austrian escort. In 1859, after the Franco-Italian victories over the Austrians in Lombardy, Leopold was expelled and Tuscany annexed to the Sardinian (afterwards Italian) kingdom.
In 1865 Florence became the capital of the kingdom of Italy, but after the occupation of Rome in 187o during the Franco-Prus sian War, the capital was transferred to the Eternal City (1871). (For the history of Florence,
see especially MEDICI. For the period 153o-1860, see TUSCANY.) BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The best complete history of Florence is Gino Bibliography.--The best complete history of Florence is Gino Capponi's Storia della Repubblica di Firenze (2 vols., Florence, 1875), a standard work based on original authorities; see also F. T. Perrens, Histoire de Florence (9 vols., 1877-90). For the early period see Pasquale Villari, 1. Primi Due Secoli della storia di Firenze (Eng. ed., 1894) ; R. Davidsohn, Geschichte der Stadt Florenz (1896, etc.) ; P. Villari, Machiavelli (Eng. ed., 1892), and Savonarola (Eng. ed., 1896) . For English histories of Florence see H. E. Napier, Florentine History (6 vols., 1846-47 ; T. A. Trollope, History of the Common wealth of Florence (4 vols., 1865) . See also the bibliographies of
