GALLATIN, ALBERT American statesman, was born in Geneva, Switzerland, on Jan. 29, 1761, of an old and noble family. His father died in 1765, his mother five years later, and he was cared for by his grandparents and by a Mlle. Pictet, an intimate friend of his mother. In 1779 he graduated with honour from the college in Geneva, and, giving up fortune and social position, slipped away from home and embarked for America despite the wishes of his relatives. In July 178o Gallatin and his friend Henri Serre (d. 1784) landed in Massachusetts and entered business ; but, conditions in the country being unsettled, they failed. For a time Gallatin taught French in Harvard college, then removed to the backwoods of Pennsylvania and Virginia, where he engaged in land speculation.
Beginning his service in Congress in Dec. 1795, Gallatin im mediately made himself a conspicuous figure and before his first term was over became the Federalists' most dangerous opponent in Congress, and they attacked him not only politically but per sonally, for at this time they were opposed to the French Revolu tion and so resented Gallatin's ancestry. Gallatin became the financier of his party and succeeded in inaugurating the committee on finance, which is now the ways and means committee, and fought for his cardinal doctrines of simplicity and economy in government. In debate (1796) over the Jay Treaty he defended the constitutional right of the House to consider treaties, admitting that the President and Senate had the right to make treaties, but maintaining that the House could refuse to pass the finances to carry them out. When in May 1797 President Adams asked for appropriations for war because of France's refusal to receive American ambassadors, Gallatin struggled successfully to keep down appropriations and to prevent the three United States frigates from being equipped for sea. He continued his opposition to a strong navy, the mainspring of Washington's foreign policy, and in the following year helped to defeat a resolution for the preparation of 16 armed vessels and a declaration of war against France. He also opposed (Jan. 1798) commercial treaties and diplomatic in tercourse, maintaining that all political intercourse should be gradually given up, and commercial intercourse protected by the consular system.
The greatest period of Gallatin's career in Congress was in 1798, when, after the publication of the famous X.Y.Z. despatches had inflamed the people against France and given the Federalists control of the Government, he was attacked as a French agent, and Jefferson believed that the Sedition bill was intended to drive him from office. However, the strong measures of the Federalists shocked the country, and the Republicans carried the elections of 1800. Gallatin led his party in the contest in the House of Repre sentatives, which elected Jefferson over Burr.
When Jefferson became President (I 8o 1) he made James Madi son secretary of State and Gallatin secretary of the Treasury. Gallatin made few changes in Hamilton's arrangements, but he did seek for simplicity of Government and the extinction of the public debt. He preferred to bribe the Barbary pirates to spend ing the money to subdue them, wished to avoid commercial war fare at all costs, and thought that (1803) the Government should seize east Louisiana and west Florida. Despite the fact that he could not reduce naval expenditures as he wished, he achieved his goal and, despite the Louisiana Purchase (1803), reduced the public debt by $14,260,000 within six years and acquired a surplus. However, relations with Europe became strained and in Dec. 1807 Jefferson put into execution the embargo, though Gallatin, rec ognizing the consequences, declared, "I prefer war to a permanent embargo," and reported that a continuous embargo would necessi tate a loan while war would not. The embargo proved futile and was repealed (1809) in favour of the non-intercourse act, after causing a deficiency in the Treasury, and Jefferson retired to be succeeded by Madison.
Madison had regarded Gallatin as his successor as secretary of State ; but a cabal in the Senate opposed him and Gallatin was left as secretary of the Treasury. The cabal continued to attack him, and in addition he lost the support of Pennsylvania and of the House.
In June 1812 war was declared against England. This shattered Gallatin's cherished schemes, for he believed war was fatal to prosperity and progress ; like Jefferson, he had thought Govern ment could be carried on upon a priori principles, resting on the assumed perfectness of human nature. However, he put the finances in the best order he could, and set himself to attain an early peace. With this end in view he grasped at the proffered mediation of Russia, and with Madison's permission sailed with James A. Bayard for Europe in May 1813 without resigning as secretary of the Treasury. Great Britain refused to negotiate through Russia, and in addition Gallatin heard that the Senate had refused to confirm his appointment because he was still secre tary of the Treasury. He sent in his resignation and worked un officially until his second appointment was confirmed. In the meantime Great Britain had expressed its willingness to proceed with direct negotiations. The English and American commissioners finally met at Ghent, Gallatin, Bayard and John Quincy Adams, who was minister to Russia, being supplemented by Jonathan Russel and Henry Clay. In the tedious discussions which followed, Gallatin played the leading part, preserving peace among his col leagues and establishing a reputation as a diplomatist. He refused to push the American claim to Florida, but stood firmly on other points with his colleagues. Peace rewarded them ; the treaty was signed on Dec. 24, 1814. After visiting Geneva for the first time since his boyhood, and assisting in negotiating a commercial con vention (1815) with England by which discriminating duties were abolished, Gallatin returned to America in July 1815.
While still in Europe he had been asked by Madison to become minister to France; this appointment he accepted in Jan. 1816, and adhered to his acceptance in spite of his being asked in April 1816 to serve once more as secretary of the Treasury. He remained in France for the next seven years, and in 1818 assisted Richard Rush, then United States minister in London, in negotiating a commercial convention.
In June 1823 he returned to the United States, where he found himself in the bitter struggle then in progress for the Presidency. His favourite candidate was his personal friend, William H. Craw ford, with whom he consented in May 1824 to stand for the vice presidency. The contest was bitter and full of intrigue. Martin Van Buren, then in the Crawford interest, came to the conclusion that Gallatin, by his foreign origin, weakened the ticket, and in October Gallatin retired from the contest. The election was thrown into the House, and resulted in the choice of John Quincy Adams, who in 1826 drew Gallatin from his retirement and sent him as minister to England, where he avoided an open breach on the delicate question of the north-east boundary of the United States by referring it to the arbitration of the king of the Netherlands. In Nov. 5827 he once more returned to the United States and bade farewell to public life.
Taking up his residence in New York, he was in 1832-39 presi dent of the National Bank (afterwards the Gallatin Bank) of New York. By writing his Synopsis of the Indian Tribes within the United States East of the Rocky Mountains and in the British and Russian Possessions in North America (1836), and by found ing the American Ethnological Society of New York in 1842, he earned the title of "Father of American Ethnology." He died in Astoria, L.I., on Aug. 12, BIBLIOGRAPHY.—The Writings of Albert Gallatin, edited by Henry Bibliography.—The Writings of Albert Gallatin, edited by Henry Adams, as published at Philadelphia in 1879. With this was published an excellent biography, The Life of Albert Gallatin, also by Henry Adams; another good biography is John Austin Stevens' "Albert Gallatin" (Boston, 1884) in the American Statesmen series. See also The Diary of James Gallatin ; vol. iii. of The American Secre taries of State (Bemis ed., 1927) ; L. M. Sear's Jefferson and the Embargo (Durham, N.C., 1927) ; H. W. Temperley's The Foreign Policy of Canning (1925) ; The Cambridge History of British Foreign Policy (vol. iii.), edited by A. W. Ward and G. P. Gooch.