GALLICANISM, a name for various theories maintaining that both the church and the state in France had ecclesiastical rights of their own, independent and exclusive of the jurisdiction of the pope. These theories were developed in opposition to ultra montanism (q.v.). As regards the church, it was held that infalli ble authority was committed to pope and bishops jointly; the pope decided in the first instance, but his judgments must be tac itly or expressly confirmed by the bishops before they had the force of law. And as regards the state, Gallicanism goes back to the protests raised against the theocratic pretensions of the medi aeval popes. They claimed that they, as vicars of Christ, had the right to interfere in the temporal concerns of princes, and even to depose sovereigns of whom they disapproved. Gallicanism answered that kings held their power directly of God ; hence their temporal concerns lay altogether outside the jurisdiction of the pope. During the troubles of the Reformation era, when the papal deposing power threatened to become a reality, the Galli can theory became of great importance. It was incorporated by Bossuet in a solemn Declaration of the French Clergy, made in 1682. This document lays down: (1) that the temporal sover eignty of kings is independent of the pope; (2) that a general council is above the pope; (3) that the ancient liberties of the Gallican Church are sacred; (4) that the infallible teaching au thority of the church belongs to pope and bishops jointly. This declaration led to a violent quarrel with Rome, and was officially withdrawn in 1693, though its doctrines continued to be largely held. In 1802 Napoleon contented himself by embodying Bos suet's declaration textually in a statute. Long before his time, however, the issue had been narrowed down to determining exactly how far the pope should be allowed to interfere in French ecclesiastical affairs. Down to the repeal of the Concordat in 1905 all French governments continued to uphold two of the an cient "Gallican Liberties." The secular courts took cognizance of ecclesiastical affairs whenever the law of the land was alleged to have been broken; and papal bulls were not allowed to be pub lished without the leave of the state. See FEBRONIANISM ; ULTRA