FREMONT, JOHN CHARLES American explorer, soldier and political leader, was born in Savannah, Georgia. His father, a native of France, died when the boy was in his sixth year, and his mother, a member of an aristocratic Virginia family, removed to Charleston; S.C., where Fremont's youth was spent. In 1828 he entered the junior class of the College of Charleston, where he displayed marked ability, especially in mathematics. His degree was withheld because of irregular attendance but finally conferred in 1836. Joel R. Poin sett's influence secured his appointment in 1833 as teacher of mathematics on board the sloop-of-war "Natchez" and Fremont sailed with that vessel on a cruise along the South American coast which lasted two and a half years. Upon his return he declined an appointment as professor of mathematics in the United States navy and chose instead to serve as assistant engineer of a survey undertaken to find the best pass for a proposed railway from Charleston to Cincinnati. Following this Poinsett secured for him an appointment as second lieutenant of topographical engi neers in the United States army, and for the next three years he was an assistant to the French explorer, Jean Nicholas Nicollet, employed by the war department to survey and map a large part of the country lying between the upper waters of the Mississippi and Missouri rivers. In 1841 Fremont alone headed an expedition to survey the Des Moines river to complete Nicollet's map. These years under Nicollet furnished invaluable training and experience for use in his later career and gave him a desire for further west ern adventure. Upon his return he married Jessie Benton, daugh ter of Senator Thomas Hart Benton of Missouri, and it was in no small measure Benton's great interest in the West and his influence with the Government that enabled Fremont to accomplish within the next few years the exploration of much of the territory between the Mississippi valley and the Pacific ocean.
When emigration over the Oregon trail to the Oregon country began to be important in 1842, Fremont was sent at the head of a party to explore the route beyond the Mississippi as far as South pass in Wyoming. He surveyed the trail thoroughly and his excel lent descriptions greatly aided the emigrants of following years. He ascended to the summit of the second highest peak of the Wind River mountains, since known as Fremont's peak. The year following he was sent to complete the survey of the trail to the mouth of the Columbia. His guide on this as well as on the previous expedition was the famed and picturesque Kit Carson. The Oregon settlements were quickly reached, and then Fremont turned south and east via the Klamath lakes to north-western Nevada, continuing the Truckee and Carson rivers. This por tion of the journey over hitherto untravelled country added greatly to geographical knowledge of the West. Fremont then accomplished with his entire expedition an extremely difficult and rash crossing of the Sierra Nevada mountains in midwinter—an exploit which added greatly to his fame—and spent the winter near Sutter's Fort on the Sacramento river in California. His return was round the southern end of the Sierra Nevada range and across to Great Salt lake mainly via the old Spanish trail from Santa Fe to California.
Thousands of copies of his report of this expedition were printed and eagerly read. War with Mexico over the annexation of Texas seemed imminent and in the spring of 1845 Fremont was again despatched on a third expedition for the professed purpose of further exploring the Great basin and Pacific coast, but with secret instructions for action in case of a war with Mexico. He and his party of 62, after traversing the Great basin by a new route directly west from Great Salt lake and down the valley of the Humboldt, reached California, in Jan. 1846, of ter a second win ter crossing of the Sierras. The Mexican authorities became suspicious and ordered Fremont out of the province. Fremont refused to leave at once and fortified his position, but later thought better of this indiscreet action and led his party toward the Oregon border. He was overtaken by a messenger direct from Washington and at once turned about and led his force back into California. The official documents delivered gave Fremont no excuse for hostile actions, but what orders the private letters and verbal in structions contained is unknown. While Fremont's men were in camp the Americans in northern Mexico revolted from Spain and created the Bear-Flag republic. Fremont took no part in the hos tilities but certainly gave his moral support. When news of the declaration of war with Mexico did reach California all the north ern region was already in American hands. Fremont was appointed by Commodore Stockton major of a battalion made up mainly of American volunteers, and by Jan. 1847 he and Stockton had com pleted the conquest of the future State. Gen. Stephen W. Kear ney, in the meantime, entered California from the south-east with orders similar to those of Stockton, namely to conquer the region and establish a government. This conflict of orders led to a con flict of authorities between which Fremont was caught. Stockton had already appointed him governor of California, but Kearney would not recognize the appointment. Fremont, obeying the officer from whom he had received his commission, disregarded Kearney's contradictory orders and was arrested by the latter, who by this time, unknown to Fremont, had received later orders from Wash ington establishing his authority without contradiction. Fremont was tried by court martial in Washington, found guilty of mutiny, disobedience and conduct prejudicial to military discipline, and sentenced to be dismissed. President Polk approved of the verdict except as to mutiny, but remitted the penalty. Fremont, in a bitter mood, resigned.
The explorer now intended to establish his home on an estate which he had purchased in California, and on his way thither de cided to lead, at his own and Senator Benton's expense, a fourth expedition to find passes for a Pacific railroad which he was eager to see built. Kit Carson not being available, Fremont employed the eccentric "Bill" Williams as guide. Westward from the head waters of the Rio Grande the party tried to penetrate the massive San Juan range in December. Williams led them into a high, un known pass where they were caught by a blizzard. After weeks of intense cold and the loss of 11 men and the entire outfit, the exhausted party in retreat reached the first settlements in the upper Rio Grande. Fremont continued by the southern route to California and was greeted with news of the discovery of gold. Rich veins were discovered on his great 4o,000ac. estate on the Mariposa river at the base of the Sierras, and he spent the next few years developing mines which quickly made him a multi millionaire. In Dec. 184Q he was elected one of the first two sena tors from California, but drawing the short term he served only from Sept. 185o to March 1851. He was defeated for re-election by the pro-slavery party. His opposition to slavery, however, together with the popularity his explorations and his part in the conquest of California had won for him, led to his nomination for the presidency in 1856 by the newly formed Republican Party. In the ensuing election he was defeated by James Buchanan by 174 to 114 votes.
Soon after the Civil War began, Fremont was appointed major general and placed in command of the western department with headquarters at St. Louis. The task of organizing an effective army with insufficient arms, insufficient supplies and but a few thousand untrained men in a slave State which needed policing at all points proved too much of a task for Fremont's ability. Political and military enemies made the most of his failures, and he was blamed for several distressing defeats, though it is doubtful if they could have been avoided. Furthermore, on Aug. 3o, 1861, he issued a proclamation in which he declared the property of Missourians in rebellion confiscated and their slaves emancipated. President Lincoln regarded this proclamation as premature, fear ing that it might alienate the border States whose loyalty he still hoped to keep. The adverse reports of agents sent by Lincoln to investigate Fremont's management led to his removal by the president. Out of consideration for the "radicals" who backed Fremont, he was placed in command of the mountain department of Virginia, Kentucky and Tennessee in 1862 but was ineffective and seemingly dazed by the rapid manoeuvres of "Stonewall" Jackson, his opponent. When his army was united with the army of the Potomac to form the army of Virginia which was placed under the command of his old enemy in Missouri, Gen. John Pope, Fremont resigned. He was still popular enough to be nomi nated for the presidency in 1864 by the radical wing of the Re publican Party, but when he saw that he had no chance and would possibly only split the party to defeat Lincoln, he withdrew. He retired from public life and devoted himself to building a railroad by the southern route to the Pacific. The finances of the enterprise were unsound and in the collapse in 1870 Fremont lost the fortune he had made in California. In his embarrassment he welcomed the relief and change of occupation that came with an appoint ment as governor of Arizona territory in 1878, an office which he occupied until 1881. He died in New York city on July 13, 189o.
It is for the splendid achievements of his early life as an ex plorer that Fremont will be most gratefully remembered by the American people. It is true that trappers had long before trav elled where he followed, but he first surveyed and described the routes. If he was not a "pathfinder" he was a "path-marker." "From the ashes of his campfires have sprung cities." See his Report of the Exploring Expedition to the Rocky Mountains, 1842, and to Oregon and North California, and Mem ories of My Life (1887). The best biography is Allan Nevins, Fremont, the West's Greatest Adventurer (1927). See also H. Bashford and H. Wagner, A Man Unafraid, the Story of John C. Fremont (San Fran cisco, 1927). Fremont's own account of "The Conquest of California" is in the Century Magazine for April, 189o.