Mongolia

There is no indication that the regions ever experienced glacia tion. In Pleistocene time, glacial epochs were represented in the Gobi region by changes to more humid climate, and inter-glacial epochs by return to desert conditions. The close of the glacial period and the beginning of recent time were marked by a change from comparative humidity to the desert climate of to-day. But even in recent time the climate has not been uniform; neither has the curve of change been smooth. There have been smaller changes within the longer cycles. Even within the last great arid cycle there have been epochs when the Gobi region was compara tively fruitful and could support a numerous population, separated by other epochs of more strictly desert habit and difficult condi tions for animal life.

Archaeological Work,

which was directed by Mr. N. C. Nelson, was not begun until the last expedition in the season of 1925. Rich results have rewarded the very beginning of the investigation of the central Asian plateau. During 1923, the Jesuits, Father Teilhard de Chardin and Father Licent, discov ered abundant evidences of Palaeolithic man in extensive deposits of Mousterian implements at three different localities in the Ordos desert. No human remains were found with the exception of a single incisor tooth which has recently come to light, having remained unidentified among the collections of four years. Pre vious to this, Dr. J. G. Andersson had traced a widespread Neo lithic and pre-Chinese culture in various parts of northern and western China proper. In 1926 two human teeth were described from a basal Pleistocene cave deposit in the Western hills about 15 m. from Peking, excavated under the direction of Dr. Ander sson. In 1927 an additional molar tooth from the same deposit and doubtless from the same individual, a child about eight years old, was discovered during excavations conducted jointly by the Chinese Geological Survey and the Peking Union Medical college under the direction of Dr. Davidson Black. These teeth rank with the oldest human remains known to science.

Because caves and rock-shelters, so common in Europe, are virtually non-existent in Mongolia, archaeological work there is particularly difficult. Nevertheless, almost everywhere along the i,000 m. route of the expedition from near Kalgan to the outlying ranges of the Altai mountains more or less superficial traces of two prehistoric cultures were discovered. In sight of the Altai, where workable artifact materials such as jasper, chalcedony and agate were abundant, there are evidences of long-standing occupa tion. In the Gobi desert were found five cultural horizons, not

including the living Mongols. The most recent in age were monu ments consisting of rectangular and circular rock enclosures, from 3 to 15o ft. across. Most of these are burial-places and several contained skeletal remains of a brachycephalic people. In one grave, Nelson discovered a skeleton with its head lying on a sad dle, bows and arrows tipped with iron, bits of fabric and iron saddle trimmings. Near the graves were frequently pictographs pecked on the face of the rock. These represent human beings, camels, horses, cattle, stags, antelopes, ibexes and mountain sheep; the stag is now absent there.

The meagre data obtained do not warrant any precise conclu sions about this interesting culture but it seems probable that it is an expansion of the remarkable mound culture of Bronze and Iron age times uncovered by Russian investigators in the Upper Yenesei country. As such its Mongolian antiquity can scarcely exceed 2,000 years.

The "Dune Dwellers..

The most important archaeological discovery was a culture camp near the eastern spur of the Altai mountains within half a mile of the dinosaur egg beds. In fact, these primitive artisans used for necklace ornaments the broken shells of dinosaur eggs as well as those of Struthiolithus, the giant ostrich of the Stone age of Mongolia. No human fossils have been found, but it is established that the Stone age tribes spread over the borders of the Gobi desert region during the Ice age, establish ing their workshops near large lakes bordering the Altai mountains. These Neolithic and Mesolithic people have been named by Mr. Nelson the "dune dwellers" or the "Shabarakh culture" because of the occurrence of their artifacts in old dead and indurated sand deposits called the "Shabarakh formation." It yields a combina tion of characters which appear to be distinctly Gobian. Thous ands of flint artifacts and flakes were found here, both upon the surface and deeply embedded in the formation itself, and there are definite indications that this was a favourite camping place for many thousands of years. The geologists are certain that a lake had existed, probably intermittently, in this great basin furnishing water for the inhabitants. Moreover, 36 m. west was discovered the source of supply for the flint of which the primitive artisans made their tools and weapons. That this culture was wide-spread is evident, for at nearly every place where the Shabarakh f orma tion appeared, artifacts were present.