In its general character this constitution follows the Soviet model, and the Revolution of 1924 is generally interpreted as marking the absorption of Outer Mongolia into the Russian Federation of Soviet Republics. But technically China has not abandoned her Suzerainty which was even admitted by Russia in the year following the establishment of the Mongol Republic. In a statement on Russian foreign policy in 1925 Commissar Chicherin said : "The Soviet Government recognizes Mongolia as part of the whole Republic of China, enjoying, however, autonomy so far-reaching as to preclude Chinese interference with the internal affairs. . . . It ought to be noted that after several crises the internal situation in Mongolia has settled down and been consolidated on a basis similar to the Soviet system." It would be hazardous to say that Outer Mongolia is being ab sorbed by "Russia" in the same sense that Inner Mongolia is being absorbed by China, for the attitude of the Mongol people and the ultimate political orientation of Eastern Siberia are both uncertain. All that can safely be asserted is that Outer Mongolia has broken away from China and that her economic relations and political affinities are now with the Soviet Federation.
The Mongol People's Republic is bounded on the north-west by the high crests which form the buttress ranges of the plateau, and extend from the Altai through the Sayan mountains—es sentially a natural frontier. The boundary then passes well to the south of Lake Baikal, cutting across the Selenga-Orkhon and Kerulen river-systems which orientate this north-eastern section of Mongolia towards Trans-Baikalia. Its short eastern boundary, abutting on Manchuria, lies to the west of the great Khingan. The southern boundary with Inner Mongolia follows the centre of the Gobi. The total area of the state is probably about i,000, 000 square miles, but the productive regions are concentrated in the north near the Siberian frontier, where the grassland becomes richer and grades into forest on the mountain slopes. In contrast to Inner Mongolia the population is essentially Mongol, com prising two principal tribal groups: the Kalmuks in the west, the Sharra and Khalkhas in the east. These are the purest and most typical of the Mongols, but the Buriat tribes of Trans-Baikalia, although mixed with other racial elements, are closely related to them and form another point of contact with the Russian sphere. The differences between the Khalkha, Kalmuk and Buriat dialects are comparatively small (see Whymant, A Mongolian Grammar [1926]). There is hardly any Mongol literature, partly because the written language is very different from the colloquial, and partly because the liturgical lamaist books are written in Tibetan. Lama-Buddhism is everywhere the popular religion. It gradually replaced Shamanism from the time when Kublai Khan adopted Buddhism and instituted the Dalai Lama, the Pope of the Tibetan and Mongolian Buddhists ; and its spread was en couraged by the Manchu Emperors as a convenient instrument for taming the wild Mongol nature. Buddhism has indeed ap
preciably changed the habits and outlook of the Mongols as a whole, converting a race of virile warriors into inoffensive and generally indolent herdsmen. Their potential military strength was further sapped by the Manchu policy of weakening the original tribal organization and bringing it under the control of their officials. It remains to be seen whether the abolition of the theocracy, the revival of military training and association with the Soviet regime may again alter the bias of the national character. The Mongols were formerly the classical example of pure nomads, but, as part of the general change in their mode of life induced by the Manchu policy of restricting tribal organi zations to fixed areas, they have in large part settled down, although seasonal movement between winter and summer pastures by individual families is still common. The herds remain the chief source of wealth. According to the latest available informa tion (1928) there are in the Republic approximately 1,340,000 horses, 270,000 camels, 1,500,000 oxen and Io,600,000 sheep. It is also the avowed policy of the Mongolian government to foster the development of local industries by a protective tariff. Trade relations are now almost entirely with the Soviet Federation, and Outer Mongolia only communicates with the outer World through carefully regulated Soviet channels. Not only has the immigra tion of Chinese been forbidden but the formerly extensive trade between Kalgan and Urga has greatly dwindled. Urga, the chief emporium of the country, now trades chiefly with Kiakhta, on the frontier 170 miles to the north and the terminus of a branch line from the Trans-Siberian Railway. The trade with Russia is reported to have increased from 7,115,000 roubles in 1925 to 12,186,000 roubles in 1926. The chief exports are wool, skins, furs and horns together with salt and some gold. In addition to many gold mines, of which few are at present worked, there are deposits of copper, tin, iron and silver, but no general statement as to the mineral wealth of the country can be made. Within the Republic communications are mainly restricted to the caravan tracks but contact with Siberia is being developed in various ways. In collaboration with Soviet Russia new telegraph lines have been planned and in part constructed, and steamer services inaugurated on the Selenga and Orkhon rivers. A railway agree ment is reported to have been made in September 1926 between the Union of Socialist Soviet Republics and the Mongol People's Republic, by which the former has undertaken to build a railway between Urga and Chita ; one-fourth of the constructional expenses is to be borne by the Government of Outer Mongolia and the rest by the Government of the U.S.S.R. which is to have control of the line and liberty to exploit the resources of a belt loo versts in width on each side of the railway. According to the latest estimates (October 1928) the population of the Mongol Re public contains 579,000 Mongols, 90,00o Russians and 7,000 Chinese.