South and south-east of the Catskills, although including only a small portion of the State, there are a number of different topographic features, due to the belts of different rock structure which cross the State from south-west to north-east. The most pronounced of these upfolded strata in New York form the low Shawangunk mountains, which descend, toward the south-east, to a lowland region of folded strata of limestone, slate and other rocks in Orange and Dutchess counties. This lowland area, due to the non-resistant character of the strata, is a continuation of the Great Valley of the Appalachians, and extends north-east into Vermont and south-west across New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland and Virginia. It is bounded on its south-east side by the Highlands, a belt of ancient crystalline rocks which extends north-east into Connecticut and Massachusetts, and south-west into the highlands of New Jersey and thence to the Blue Ridge. South of the Highlands, in New Jersey, but extending to the very banks of the Hudson, is a belt of Triassic sandstone with in, trusions of trap rock, which, on account of its peculiar columnar jointing, has developed a palisade structure—the famous Palisades of the lower Hudson. Long Island, though modified by extensive glacial deposits, may be considered a north-east extension of the coastal plains which attain a much more perfect development in New Jersey and the States farther south.
The entire surface of New York, with the exception of a very small area in the extreme west, in Chautauqua and Cattaraugus counties, was covered by the continental glacier. It broadened and deepened many of the valleys; rounded the hills; turned aside many streams, causing changes in drainage and giving rise to innumerable waterfalls and rapids ; and it formed the thousands of lakes, large and small, which dot the surface. As the ice receded, it halted at various points, forming moraines and other glacial deposits. Thus the soil of almost the entire State has been derived by glacial action.
The drainage of New York finds its way to the sea in various directions. The St. Lawrence system receives most, mainly from short streams from the plateau province and from the Adiron dacks. A small part of the State, in the west, drains to the Ohio, and thence, by way of the Mississippi, to the Gulf of Mexico; and a much larger area drains into the Susquehanna, entering the head of Chesapeake bay. A part of the Catskills, and the region farther south, drains into Delaware bay through the Delaware river. Thus New York is pre-eminently a divide region, sending its drainage, by various courses, into widely separated parts of the ocean. Only the Hudson (q.v.) and a few streams in the extreme south have independent courses to the sea within the State itself. The Hudson is by far the most important river in the State, for, owing to the sinking of the land, which has admitted the tide as far as Troy, it is navigable for 151 m. from the sea. It is noted
for its remarkable scenery, especially where it crosses the High lands. Westward from Troy, the Mohawk valley furnishes a Buffalo is situated at the foot of Lake Erie, where navigation for the big lake carriers ends. It ranks ninth among United States ports and eighth among the industrial cities of America highway which is followed by canal, railway and motor road. Thus there is here a gap, easily traversed, across the Appalachian moun tains and plateaux to the more level and fertile plains beyond.
There are thousands of lakes and ponds in the State, most of them very small and all, even including Lakes Erie and Ontario, the result of glacial action. The largest lake apart from Erie and Ontario is the beautiful Lake Champlain, which lies on the eastern boundary. The largest lake entirely within the State is Lake George. In the central part of the State area is a series of peculiar elongated lakes, extending in a nearly north-south direc tion, known as the Finger lakes. The largest of these are Cayuga, Seneca, Keuka, Canandaigua, Owasco and Skaneateles. Here too is Watkins Glen acquired by the State for a park. In the ex treme western part of the State is Chautauqua lake, beautifully situated in the plateau of western New York. New York is noted for its many falls and rapids, some of them of great beauty. Of these the largest is the cataract of Niagara, about 1 m. wide and 165 ft. high. The American fall is entirely within the State; but the Canadian boundary-line passes down the centre of the Horseshoe or Canadian fall. Other notable falls are those of the Genesee at Portage and at Rochester, the falls in the Cayuga and the Seneca valleys, Trenton falls, the Falls of Ticonderoga, and a multitude of falls and rapids in the Adirondack region.
New York has an extensive coast-line along the Great Lakes, 75 m. on Lake Erie and over 200 m. on Lake Ontario. The largest of the lake ports is at Buffalo at the head of Niagara river, where, owing to the Niagara cataract, lake boats from the west must transfer their goods to rail or canal. Buffalo lies at the lower end of natural lake navigation, though by the building of a ship canal in Canada, lake steamers can proceed into Lake Ontario and thence to the St. Lawrence. The ocean coast-line, though of limited extent, is by far the most important in the United States. The greater part of the sea-coast is on Long island—a low, sandy coast, the seat of numerous summer resorts and of some fishing. The mainland, opposite the western end of Long Island, is traversed by the lower Hudson and other channels— submerged valleys—which form a branching bay with several islands, the largest of which are Staten and Manhattan islands. This bay makes an excellent protected harbour, with an immense water front, at the outlet of the chief natural highway from the east to the interior of the country.