New York

Climate.

In general the climate of New York is typical of that of northern United States, a climate of extremes, hot in summer, and cold in winter, and yet healthful, stimulating, and, on the whole, not disagreeable. The average mean annual tem perature is not far from though it varies from over 5o° near New York city, and near the Lake Erie shore, to less than in the high Adirondacks. The average maximum summer heat is about 93°, a temperature of ioo° being rarely reached. In the winter the temperature descends below zero during exceptionally cold spells. Most of the rivers and smaller lakes freeze over com pletely in winter. The average rainfall is between 4o and 45 in. but it is less than 3o in. in the Lake Champlain valley and over 55 in. north of New York city. In the Adirondack region the snowfall is heavy, the winter long and severe. In central New York it is not uncommon for snow to accumulate to the depth of 3 or 4 ft. and yet this is not persistent. About New York city, and on Long Island, the snow rarely exceeds i ft. in depth. The climate is variable owing to the frequent passage of cyclonic storms from the west and south-west, bringing warmer weather with rain and snow in winter, and causing days of great heat and humidity, with thunder-storms, in summer. About New York city, and on Long Island, the ocean softens the rigours of winter, and through the influence of cold surface waters off the coast, tempers the heat of summer.

Soil.—The soil is mostly glacial drift, but its depth and compo sition often vary greatly even within small areas. The most widely distributed soil, especially in the west half of the State, is mainly a clay which was formed by the glacial pulverizing of limestone and shale and is still forming from the decomposition of fragments of these substances. In the larger valleys and along the shores of lakes alluvium is mixed with this clay.

Population.

New York outstripped Pennsylvania in popula tion in the first decade of the 19th century, and Virginia in the second decade, and since 1820 it has been the most populous State in the Union. The population at certain selected censuses was: 340,120 in 1790; 1,372,812 in 1820; 3,880,735 in 186o; 5,082,871 in 1880; 7,268,894 in 1900; 9,113,614 in Iwo; and 10, 385,227 in 1920. In 1930 the population was 12,588,066, an in crease of 2,202,839 or 21.2% for the decade. On July 1, 1936 it was estimated at 12,935,000. The native white population in 1930 was 8,958,744, of whom 4,473,946 were of native parentage; 3, 351,491 of foreign parentage; and 1,133,307 of mixed parentage.

The foreign-born white population was including 629, 322 natives of Italy, 481,306 of Russia, 349,196 of Germany, 293, 225 of Ireland, 350,383 of Poland, 142,298 of Austria, 146,485 of England and 147,874 of Canada. Of the total but 898,149 lived outside New York City. The negro population was 412,814, or only 3.3%. The average population per square mile in 1930 was 264.2. The urban population (in cities of 2,50o or more) was Of the State's population 55% lived in New York city in 1930. In 1930 there were 22 cities with a population over 3o,000; those with a population exceeding 1 oo,000 were: Government.—Since becoming a State, New York has been governed under four constitutions, adopted in 1777, 1821, 1846 and 1894 respectively. A Constitutional Convention met and proposed a new Constitution in 1915, but it was rejected by the people. The present Constitution may be amended by a majority vote of the members of two successive legislatures and approval by the electorate.

Suffrage is bestowed on all citizens who have attained the age of 21 years and have been inhabitants of the State for one year, but for the protection of the ballot, citizenship for 90 days, residence in the county for four months, and in the election district for 3o days next preceding the election are required. An absentee voting law, subsequently amended, went into operation in 1919.

The executive and administrative department of New York State is functioning under a reorganization plan, authorized by a constitutional amendment approved in Nov. 1925, which became effective Jan. 1, 1927. Under this system there are 18 major departments to which have been allocated the duties of more than 180 commissions and bureaux. Only the governor, lieuten ant governor, comptroller and attorney general are now elected. They are elected biennially (in even-numbered years). The office of secretary of State is now appointive; the duties of the State treasurer were transferred to the division of finance in the department of taxation and finance ; while the duties of the State engineer and surveyor were transferred to the division of engineering in the department of public works. The 18 State

departments now consist of the executive department, the de partments of audit and control, of taxation and finance, of law, of state, of public works, of conservation, of agriculture and markets, of labour, of education, of health, of mental hygiene, of social welfare, of correction, of public service, of banking, of insurance and the department of civil service.

The governor submits to the legislature, not later than Jan. 15 (except in the case of a newly elected governor, when the date is extended to Feb. I), a budget containing a complete plan of proposed expenditures and estimated revenues for the next fiscal year. The budget also contains recommendations of the governor for new taxes, loans or other appropriate actions to meet any estimated deficiency for the ensuing fiscal year. A bill or item of an appropriation bill that has been vetoed by the governor can become a law only with the approval of two-thirds of the members elected to each house of the legislature. The salary of the governor and of the lieutenant governor, as fixed by an amendment of the Constitution in 1927, is $25,000 and $10,000 respectively. The legislative power is vested in a senate of 51 members elected biennially and an assembly of 150 members elected annually. Since 1846 both senators and assemblymen have been elected by single districts, and ever since the State Government was established they have been apportioned according to population, but the present Constitution limits the representa tion of New York city in the senate by declaring that no county shall have more than one-third of all the senators, nor any two adjoining counties more than one-half of them. The legislature meets in annual sessions, beginning on the first Wednesday in January. Money bills may originate in either house, but at the final vote on such a bill in either house three-fifths of the mem bers elected to that house must be present and the yeas and nays must be recorded; bills entailing appropriations for local or private purposes must receive a two-thirds majority to pass. The legisla ture appoints the board of regents of the University of the State of New York. The judicial system comprises a supreme court of 125 justices, four appellate divisions of the same, a court of ap peals, a court of claims and local courts. The highest judicial court in the State is not, as in most States of the Union, the supreme court, but the court of appeals. This court consists of a chief judge and six associate judges elected from the State at large for a term of 14 years. Its jurisdiction is limited, except where judg ment is of death, to a review of questions of law. Vacancies are temporarily filled from among the justices of the supreme court by the governor. To expedite business, at the request of the court, the governor may designate not more than four justices of the su preme court to act temporarily as additional associate judges of the court of appeals. The salary of the chief judge is $22,500, of the associate judges $22,000 a year. The justices of the supreme court are elected for 14 years from the nine districts into which the State is divided. The jurisdiction of each justice extends over the entire State. Vacancies are temporarily filled by the governor. The supreme court has general jurisdiction in law and equity, including both civil and criminal actions. The salary of each justice is $15,000 except in the 1st, 2nd and 9th districts where $10,00o more is raised from local sources. Pre siding judges receive an additional $2,500 and all assigned to ap pellate work an extra $2,000. The State is divided into 4 depart ments for each of which there is an appellate division consisting of 8 justices in the first and second departments and 6 in each of the others. The justices and presiding justices are designated from among the justices of the supreme court by the governor; the presiding justice and a majority of the other justices of each department must be residents of the department. The court of claims consists of three judges, one presiding, appointed by the governor for a term of nine years. It has jurisdiction to hear and determine private claims against the State. New York city (q.v.) has an extensive judiciary system of its own.