The census of 1882 placed the population of Nicaragua at 275,816; in 1890, it was 375,000; in 1900, 500,00o; in 1905, 550,00o; in 1920, as noted, the census reported 638,118. None of these tabulations is entirely accurate, as the difficulties of census-taking entail costs which the Nicaraguan Government has wisely deemed greater than the advantages. The population is increasing, however, and in approximately the rate shown by the various censuses recorded. The overwhelming proportion of the population is of mixed Indian and Spanish blood, the pure Indians being estimated at 30,00o and those of white descent, purely, at about the same number; foreigners and their descendants number about 2,000, according to local estimates.
The present Constitution of Nica ragua was proclaimed in Dec. 1911, superseding those of 1905 and 1894. The legislative power is now vested in a congress composed of two chambers, senate and chamber of deputies (under the previous Constitution there was but one chamber). The country is divided into departments, to be fixed by law, representation in congress being from the departments, on the basis of one deputy for every 15,00o inhabitants, and one senator to each two deputies ; deputies are elected for four and senators for six years, each having an alternate, elected at the same time, who succeeds him in case of disability. The executive power is vested in the president, elected by popular vote for a four-year term; he must be over 3o years of age and a native citizen of Nicaragua: a vice president is chosen at the same time, to suc ceed the president in case of death or disability. In case the vice president is eliminated, the senate elects a "designate," who assumes the office of president under the same circumstances as the vice president. The presidential cabinet consists of six ministers, appointed by the president, these being ministers of government and police, foreign relations, public instruction, treasury and public credit, war and marine, promotion (f omento), justice and public works. The judiciary is exercised by a supreme court of justice with five members, three courts of appeal and inferior courts. Congress elects justices of the supreme court for six years, and of the courts of appeals for four years.
Illiteracy in Nicaragua is esti mated at 50%, but the Government, in co-operation with the Roman Catholic Church (which has been close to the conserva tive political group which ruled Nicaragua from 1912 to 1928), has made definite efforts to reduce this and make education more general. In 1927 there were 402 State elementary schools, with 788 teachers and 24,800 pupils; three State secondary schools, with 37 teachers and 26o pupils; five professional schools with 219 pupils; 3 normal schools with 35 teacners and 2,500 students. There are also 79 private schools with 5557 pupils; this includes some but not all of the parochial schools. There are three uni
versities—at Managua, Leon and Granada. The Roman Catholic Church is powerful in Nicaragua, with an archbishop at Managua and bishops at Granada, Leon and Matagalpa, but religious toler ance is provided under the Constitution.
Nicaragua has been under foreign supervision in financial matters since 1912, and despite the costly and destruc tive revolution of 1926-27, its finances, internal and external, have continued excellent. The foreign debt, of 1909, originally £1,250,000, has been reduced to (March 31, 1928) £677,400, with all arrears of interest paid and the debt on a 5% basis, to which it was reduced by agreement with the British bond holders on the inauguration of the American-supervised collector generalship of customs, in 1912. There is also outstanding 2,372,00o cordobas (the cordoba is equal in value to the American dollar and is designated C$) of the guaranteed customs bonds, issued in payment of war and revolutionary claims up to 1912. There were, at the end of 1928, some C$17,000,000 of claims for damages and other revolutionary debts, which have still to be settled, and there is likelihood of a new loan of approximately C$12,000,000, to refund the remainder of the 1909 issue, to pay damage claims (estimated as capable of settlement for C$2,000, 000 in cash) and to furnish some funds for starting work on a railway or highway to join the east and west coasts of the country.
The financial history of Nicaragua is made up of the usual list of loans and defaults characteristic of Central American coun tries. In 1912 following difficulties with President Jose Santos Zelaya, the loan of 1909 went into default, and as a result of this and the concomitant political developments, the so-called Financial Plan of 1912 was put into effect. This plan provided for the installation of an American collector-general of customs, and a rearrangement of Nicaraguan finances generally under the supervision of American bankers. When the interest and sinking fund, with arrears, was satisfactorily arranged, the Council of Foreign Bondholders of London accepted a reduction in the rate of interest, from 6 to 5%. In 1917, another financial plan was adopted, bringing up to date the payments on the foreign debt, which had been suspended owing to financial difficulties incident to the war. In that year Nicaragua received from the United States $3,000,000 in payment for an option to the site and defences of any proposed Nicaraguan interoceanic canal ; this money was applied to the settlement of old war claims and arrears of interest on the debt. Under the Financial Plan of 1917, a high com mission, with one resident American member, was installed to handle the Guaranteed Customs Bonds issued to take care of the balance of war damage claims awarded by a mixed com mission.