Nicaragua was in difficulties with various European powers from time to time during the ensuing period. In 1875, Germany blockaded Nicaraguan ports, and obtained an indemnity for alleged insults to a German consul. In 1895 the British blockaded Corinto to obtain redress for the arrest and expulsion of British Vice Consul Hatch at Bluefields. In 1909, two Americans, Cannon and Groce, were executed, after torture, and this led to an American naval demonstration and demands, and was one of the direct elements leading to American intervention. A period of comparative quiet existed in Nicaragua under a series of Con servative presidents until 1893, when Jose Santos Zelaya, a Lib eral, seized the power as a result of a revolution and ruled Nicaragua until 1909. There were various attempts at revolution, but none succeeded until that of 1909, which broke out, as most insurrections in Nicaragua do, on the Caribbean seaboard. The United States broke off diplomatic relations with Zelaya as a result of the Cannon-Groce executions. describing the Zelaya regime as a "blot on the history" of Nicaragua. The U.S. cruiser "Des Moines" prevented fighting at Bluefields on Dec. 18, 1909, thus making defeat of the Conservative revolutionists impossible, and inaugurating what is now known as the "intervention" of the United States against Zelaya and the Liberals who backed him. On Dec. 23, the Conservatives defeated the Zelaya troops at Rama, capturing most of the army, and on the following day Zelaya took refuge aboard a Mexican gunboat at Corinto and left the country. Dr. Jose Madriz, a Liberal, took the reins of Government, but the United States refused recognition; he was succeeded by Juan M. Estrada, an artisan, who had some Con servative and some Liberal backing and was regarded as a neutral. The United States accorded his Government recognition, but it was short-lived. Adolfo Diaz was elected provisional president in 1910. He was elected a second time in 1913, retiring in 1916; he was again chosen provisional president by vote of the senate in 1927. Under President Diaz, in 1912, the American marines were invited into Nicaragua on the plea of their need to protect foreign lives and property during the so-called Mena revolution, and the legation guard which succeeded the 1912 expeditionary force remained until 1925, and unquestionably preserved peace and gave Nicaragua the period of rest and recuperation which was marked by its prosperity. See CENTRAL AMERICA.
President Diaz was succeeded by Emiliano Chamorro in 1916, and he in turn by his nephew, Diego M. Chamorro (1920-23), who died in office and was succeeded by Dr. Bartolo Martinez, vice president. The election of 1924, under laws framed by an American expert but without the American supervision that had been planned, resulted in the election of a coalition ticket, Presi dent Solorzano being an anti-Chamorro Conservative, and Dr. Juan B. Sacasa, vice president, being the leader of the Liberals. Gen. Emiliano Chamorro, who stood again for the presidency as a Conservative, was defeated, and on Oct. 24, 1925, he led a
coup d'etat which captured the Loma, the fortified hill overlooking Managua, and forced the resignation and departure first of Vice President Sacasa and next of President Solorzano. Gen. Chamorro was named "designate" for the presidency by the senate, which had been changed in political complexion through the support of the Chamorro charges of fraud in the previous election (although previously these claims had been disallowed). Dr. Sacasa was declared to have given up his rights by his departure from the country and Gen. Chamorro assumed the presidency. The United States refused recognition, as did other Central American and European Governments. Dr. Sacasa, meanwhile, had pressed Washington for his own recognition as the legitimate president, but this was refused on the ground that he was not in his country nor in possession of the power. He left Washington and went to Mexico, where he had been recognized and where President Calles furnished him with arms, ammunition and men. The appearance of the Mexican element in the situation greatly dis turbed Washington, and while before the attitude had been one of neutrality, the United States immediately moved to outwit the Mexican smuggling of arms, to isolate the fighting (the Sacasa forces had formed their bases on both the Caribbean and Pacific coasts) and to bring the revolution to an end with the elimina tion of Dr. Sacasa.
This policy of isolating the fighting and landing marines to pro tect foreign interests in the country resulted in weakening the Liberal offensive and also in the resignation of Gen. Chamorro. The Nicaraguan senate, reorganized with alternates or with origi nal members in their seats, thereupon elected Adolfo Diaz "des ignate" and thus automatically president. An outcry arose throughout Latin America that the appointment had been forced by the United States. To allay such feelings Col. Henry L. Stim son was sent as a personal representative of President Coolidge to Nicaragua where he soon arranged an armistice between the war ring elements pending an early election, which should be held under American supervision. The Liberals, with the exception of a band of insurrectos under General Augustino Sandino, laid down their arms peaceably. The vote was taken on Nov. 4, 1928 and resulted in an overwhelming victory for Gen. Jose M. Moncada, who had been leader of the Liberal army at the time of Stimson's visit. The United States soon afterwards began the gradual with drawal of its troops as rapidly as their place could be taken by a local national guard. Guerilla warfare continued between Govern ment forces and Gen. Sandino's rebels. At the election of Nov. 1932, again held under United States supervision, Dr. Sacasa was chosen President. And soon afterwards a peace was concluded between his government and Sandino. It was charged by some, however, that the latter showed bad faith, and on Feb. 21, 1934 he was assassinated by members of the National Guard.