Palestine

The examination of these six cities in the Shephelah traced, then, the origins of human settlement in Palestine to the late stone age and the beginning of village life to the early bronze age. There after the occupation may be regarded as generally continuous, through successive stages of culture, influenced from various foreign sources, into historic times. The Egyptian contacts of the 12th, 18th and i 9th dynasties correspond with the known activi ties of the Pharaohs, but it is noticeable that these Egyptian "intrusions" affected little, if at all, the local arts. The Aegean and Mediterranean relations corresponding to the 18th dynasty were widespread, and produced a marked effect here as elsewhere upon the characteristic culture of the period. The later and dis tinctive appearance of sub-Mykenaean products corresponds with other indications of the Philistine origins, and is traceable gen erally throughout the plain. The later Jewish, Hellenistic and Roman phases of the iron age culture come within history. Meanwhile the examination by Dr. Sellin and others of two famous sites in the north, Taanak and Megiddo, though on a small and preliminary scale, gave indication of parallel epochs of develop ment upon similar lines, with, however, much variety of detail. Both shared in the high culture of the late bronze age, as was in deed to be inferred already from the Egyptian scenic records of the spoils taken by Thothmes III. at Megiddo. Yet a comparison of results made it already clear that wider and more exhaustive excavation was necessary before any general criteria of the ar chaeology of Palestine could be established.

At Jericho, indeed, as might perhaps have been anticipated, the signs of Egyptian and Aegean influences were relatively meagre; and the city itself, which seems to have flourished to an excep tional degree during the middle bronze age (the Hyksos period) was destroyed and apparently remained in ruins during the great period of the cities of the north, to revive only partially in the early iron age. These conclusions, it is true, correspond in broad lines with Hebrew tradition, but they are derived from a reinter pretation of the results of the excavation, and this fact illustrates the chief difficulty of the day. Comparative data were essential at this stage to further progress and they were not available.

Meanwhile Pere Vincent, who had followed the progress of archae ological researches from the beginning, had rendered signal service in 1907 by the publication of his synthetic study "Canaan," in which the results of all excavations made up to that time were scrutinized and compared, and the foundations of comparative archaeology were laid down.

Post-War Work.—The acceptance by Great Britain of the mandate for Palestine at the close of the war resulted in material developments which gave great impetus to the progress of ar chaeological research. A British school was established in Jerusa lem, and entered at once into collaboration with the Ecole Biblique and the American School of Oriental Studies. In order to facilitate the co-ordination of results it was jointly agreed to adopt the now familiar divisions of the bronze age, (early, middle and late), to connote the chief phases of Canaanitish culture pre vious to 1200 B.C. The beginnings of this period can only be estimated at about 2500 B.C., but the end corresponds historically with the invasions of iron-using sea peoples and the Philistines, and this date is found to be generally applicable, though local variation has been observed by Sir William Flinders Petrie at Tell el Sharia on the southern frontier.

The British school was entrusted with the organization of an official Department of Antiquities, charged with the protection of the historical sites and monuments of the country, and a law was promulgated for that purpose, in which equitable facilities were offered to scientific excavation. The consequent establish ment of a central museum at Jerusalem made it possible to develop and concentrate collections of specimens not only for the satisfaction of public interest but to serve as a basis for com parative study. Finally the improvement in public security enabled exploration to be extended to areas not hitherto investi gated, and the British school devoted its earliest efforts to the cutting of sections in a number of sites on the plains of Akka, Esdraelon and Sharon, followed by the exploration of caves in Eastern Galilee. The American school under Dr. Albright led the way in a new era of topographical research upon scientific lines, testing the indications of Biblical and Egyptian history by the more precise archaeological evidences now becoming available. Meanwhile inspectors of the new department examined and regis tered no fewer than 2,000 historical sites.

Under these new conditions excavations have recommenced in unprecedented numbers throughout the country. In many cases work is still proceeding and the results are only reported as yet in summary form, so that any attempt at a general survey would be premature and might prove misleading. The sites under in vestigation range from the sources of the Jordan to the Egyptian frontier, from Ascalon on the coast of Philistia to Jerash and Amman beyond the Jordan. Light is thrown by the immediate

results upon every known period of cultural development, from the oldest stone age to the Crusades. A mere recital of the names and situations of the sites and the chief results will indicate the importance and comprehensive nature of this development.

Main Results.

In all some twelve or fourteen sites have been under exploration. Caves in Galilee have furnished traces and remains of primitive man of the old stone age. Upon the coastlands, mounds in the plain of Akka, Tell Harbaj and others, and caves in the neighbouring hills of Carmel and of Galilee, illustrate the local arts and foreign influences of all periods of the bronze age and early iron age, showing general parallelism with the development of culture elsewhere, but with marked traces of intrusive elements. South of Carmel, on the coast, Dora seems to have been founded in the middle bronze age, and in Hellenistic times it was a flourishing stone-built city. On the Philistine coast Ascalon traces its origin to the same epoch as Dora. The Philistine levels here were hardly explored, being reached with difficulty; they underlay the imposing remains of the prosperous Roman pe riod, in particular the Senate house, with its elaborate cloisters, and other public buildings of that time. At Tel Mersim (possibly Kirjath Sepher) the site was defended by a stone wall already in the bronze age, and the whole plan of the city in the early iron age, with its streets, houses and gates, has been recovered. In the plain of Esdraelon the huge mound of Megiddo is now in process of complete excavation. A settlement of Neolithic date has been found at its foot, and a city-level of Israelitish period has been laid bare upon the top. There is record of the invasion of Pharaoh Shishak, hitherto unconfirmed, and trace of Hittite pene tration in the 14th century, parallel with discoveries at Beisan. On the central ridge, at Balata near Nablus, the ancient walled city of Shechem is being uncovered. The stout defences of the late bronze age with a doorway of north-Syrian "Hilani" type, enclose a sanctuary and palace of that period and in its upper strata buildings of Israelitish origin. Further south the site of Seilun, thought by some to be that of Shiloh, has been examined, but though a "high place" and pottery of the late bronze and early iron age was found, the results on the whole were incon clusive. At Tel Nazbeh, north of Jerusalem, the excavation of a walled city with prodigiously strong defences is now proceeding. Here the origins of settlement are traced to the earliest phase of the bronze age, to which period also the foundations of the defen sive ramparts pertain. In the late bronze age a higher wall with a stout revetment surrounded the enclosure. In places the wall still stands to a height of 27ft. with a thickness of 16 to 2oft., which is increased at the bottom by the revetment to no less than 46ft. The inscription on a jar handle suggests that this was the site of Mizpeh, but the point is not settled. Finally, at Jerusalem itself the city of the Jebusites on mount Ophel has been located and the stone wall. with revetment of the late bronze age has been laid bare. The whole cultural sequence is now richly illustrated at various stages by marked styles in the ceramic wares, and it may soon be possible to distinguish the local elements and assign them to their original areas and cultural sources. The brightest period in the Canaanitish civilization was clearly that of the late bronze age, 1600 B.C. to 1200 B.C., when, by the testimony of these and earlier excavations, Palestine was a land of walled and prosperous cities sharing a high and distinctive culture which is reflected in the contemporary records of the Pharaohs. The pre vailing worship at this age was that of Astarte to whom shrines are found in every site that has been sufficiently explored, to gether with objects of the cult, as at Beisan (the biblical Beth shan) where work was earliest begun and has now been proceed ing for four or five years. Here various strata of the late bronze age have been examined to a depth of 27f t. below the surface, and tombs of the period have contributed their testimony. The temple of the goddess was renewed at successive building epochs. Direct corroboration is given to the history of Egyptian activities in the area as derived from Egyptian sources. The domination of Syria by Thothmes III. in the 15th century B.C., the pene tration of the Hittites and their allies from the north in the age of Akhenaten (as indicated in the letters found at Tell el Amarna), and the subsequent efforts of Seti I. and Rameses II. in the 13th century B.C. to regain their lost Syrian possessions are definitely substantiated. Monuments of the last named Pharaohs, inscribed in Egyptian hieroglyphs, were found in strata of their period, and the texts give an account of military dispositions taken in the neighbourhood, a prelude to the conflict with the Hittite forces at Kadesh• on the Orontes, c. 1288 B.C. A reliable historical basis, thus established, will in due time extend to every site.