Paris

Communications.

The great railways of France, with the exception of the Midi railway, have terminal stations in Paris.

The principal stations of the Nord, Est and Ouest-Etat systems (that of the last is the Gare St. Lazare), lie near the outer boule vards in the north-centre of the city; the terminus of the Paris Lyon-Mediterranee railway is in the south-east, close to the right bank of the Seine; opposite to it, on the left bank, is the Gare du Quai d'Austerlitz, and on the Quai d'Orsay the Gare du Quai d'Orsay, both belonging to the Orleans railway. The Gare Mont parnasse, to the south-west of the Luxembourg, is used by the Ouest-Etat and the Etat railways. Other less important stations are the Gare de Vincennes (line of the eastern railway to Vin cennes), the Gares du Luxembourg and de Paris-Denfert (line of the Orleans railway to Sceaux and Limours), and the Gare des Invalides (line of Ouest-Etat railway to Versailles).

Railway communication round Paris is afforded by the Chemin de Fer de Petite Ceinture, running around just within the line of the old fortifications. There is a Grande Ceinture line farther out, used chiefly for goods. The underground electric railways, with stations about I km. apart, include the Nord-Sud (from the three northern gates to the Porte de Versailles) and the Metro politain. This latter system now includes lines west-east (Maillot Vincennes) and north-east-south-west (porte de la Villette–vi cinity of Montparnasse), loop lines more or less following the inner and the outer boulevards, the latter making a wide arc through south Paris as well, and other loops and branches. The above systems cross beneath the river in seven places. There is an extensive tramway system, and the omnibus system has de veloped on a large scale in recent years. The river steamers (bateaux-omnibus) run at frequent intervals right through Paris.

Water Supply.

The earliest water supply was that due to the Romans, who brought it from Rungis by aqueduct ; in the middle ages numerous springs were used until Henri IV. built a hydraulic machine (La Samaritaine) on the Pont Neuf, to pump water from the river. The city acquired, in the 19th century, the

sources of a number of streams of the district, Ourcq, Beuvronne, Vanne, Dhuys, Voulzie, Durtain and Avre, and built long aque ducts. There are modern pumping and filtering stations at Ivry, St. Maur and elsewhere, to get drinking water from the river when other sources of supply run low. These pumping stations also supply water for public and industrial purposes, and the Ourcq canal is also drawn upon for this purpose, as are artesian wells.

There are reservoirs in the higher parts of the city and the supply is distributed by two systems of pipes, at high and low pressure respectively. Wherever possible, a main pipe receives its supply from two different directions, thus minimizing effects of accidental interruptions. The development of sewers began under Louis XIII., but the main growth of the system is modern. There is a Xiii., but the main growth of the system is modern. There is a main sewer on each side of the river, and that of the left side is conducted under the river to join that of the right. The sewage of some low-lying areas has to be pumped up into the system.

The debouchment of part of the system is beyond the porte de Clichy, on the riverine peninsula of Gennevilliers, which is thus fertilized. From this the water returns to the Seine. The collect ing sewer of the north-eastern area is led out to St. Denis. The sewers serve as conduits for water pipes, gas pipes, telegraph and telephone wires, pneumatic tubes, etc.

Education

(see also FRANCE).-The public system includes ecoles maternelles or kindergartens, and infant schools, managed by women, primary schools, with some amount of charitable as sistance and of school feeding, school camp and boarding schemes, higher primary schools, technical schools, domestic science schools for girls, the college Chaptal and the college Rollin, which send boys on to the School of Mines, the Polytechnic school, etc., a number of lycees or secondary schools, of which some are old and famous foundations, and a good many private institutions and ecoles confessionnelles (denominational schools).